Organization Structure and Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

brass section Structure and Strategies - quiz ExampleThe mission statement therefore should contain information about what the company intends to do this communicating ensures that the organization achieves the set goals and objectives.There are various types of organization organises and they include the power structure structure, the matrix structure and the hybrid structure. The choice of the organization structure ineluctably to take into consideration some factors which entrust facilitate the choice of the best organization structure that will help to achieve common objectives and goals in the organization.The size of the organization will be a factor to consider when choosing the structure to adopt, the size of the organization will be determined by the number of employees, the number of departments and the output levels and number of sufficees. Appropriate structures adopted in large organizations will help in gaining competitive advantages over rivals because the str ucture helps to coordinate activities in a more efficient way.A immobile has to consider its function when choosing an appropriate structure, if the organization has various process then it would be advisable for the organization to structure according to the functions of each department.The structure will in any case depend on the nature ... Consumer needsThere is as well as a need to consider the needs of the consumer when choosing the best structure in this case the market will influence the optimal choice of structure.Organization processesThe organization processes will also be considered when making decisions about the structure, the structure in an organization where products necessitate to pass through various processes need a structure that clearly identifies these activities in a distinctive manner.The structuresAn organization needs also to consider the various advantages and disadvantages associated with each structure before deciding on which structure to adopt, th rough this consideration a business is able to make optimal decisions. Example the hierarchy structure has been criticized for making waste and also organization failure, all the advantages and disadvantage of this structure must be taken into consideration.Organization strategyCost leadership strategyThis strategy is appropriate where an organization has effected a good relationship with suppliers and it is possible to acquire raw materials at a lower personify than its rivals and therefore the firm can sell its products in the market at a low price. This is also possible when the firm adopts an efficine tproduction process that minimizes the cost of production, finally this strategy could be used when other firms are unable to minimize their cost.The product differentiation strategyThis strategy can be used if the firm has reputation in the market, it can also be used when the products in the market are not highly differentiated. For this reason therefore this strategy will work if there is high competition and that consumers take unique goods from the organization, however this strategy will only be

Weather Phenomenons vs. Crop Prices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Weather Phenomenons vs. run Prices - Essay ExampleThese elements atomic number 18 composed of what is known as suffer phenomena such a drouth, hurricane, wind, life-threatening rainfall, and snow. drouth, for example, tends to destroy crops, at that placeby decreasing its deliver in the market and increase prices. Other weather phenomena too affect the prices of the crops commodities in different ways, as will be discussed in the paper. Weather Phenomenon vs. Crop Prices ledger entry In its literal meaning, weather refers to a state of the atmosphere, to the extent to which it is cold, hot, run dry, wet, stormy, calm, cloudy, or clear. In general terms, it refers to the periodic temperature and rainfall activities. According to Arnold (2010), weather is associated with a number of phenomena that influence greatly the prices of crops. The phenomena include drouths, prolonged heavy rainfalls (El-Nino), hurricanes, hailstorms, lightning, clouds, snow, and wind. The objective of this paper is to explore the current weather phenomena and their impact on crop prices. Drought Drought refers to a period of a dry spell when there is no rainfall. It is one of the major weather phenomena that affect the prices of crops. This is due to the fact that during a dry spell, crops usually dry up in the farms track to poor harvest. This in turn, will lead to deficit of crops in the market (Bolling, 2000). When such a shortage occurs, the demand of the crops in the market will likely outweigh their supply. This will result in an amplify in the price of these crops, as many buyers will be competing to buy them. Such a slip is being witnessed in the Midwest of the USA, where persistent drought has seen the prices of corn increase tremendously over the prehistoric few weeks (Sosnowski, 2012). Johnson (2012) notes that 10-months corn futures and soybeans prices hitting unprecedentedly high since 2008 are due to the speculation that the spreading drought currently witne ssed in the Midwest of the US will cut the USs supplies of these crops, as it is the valet de chambres largest producer of the crops. This was after the meteorological department predicted that the Midwest would experience unusually hot and dry spell in the next 10 days, as occasional light showers would be too microscopical for more than brief crop improvements. Gim Gerlach was reported as saying that the crops are shrinking daily, while prices are shooting up for less available supply of crops for domestic use and export (Johnson, 2012). Statistically, corn futures for celestial latitude supply jumped 4.4% to close at $7.725 per bushel on the Chicago Board of Trade. The trade market besides had hit $7.78 high early on. This general increase in corn and soybeans due to the drought would withal probably lead to inflation. Demand and supply curve Price S2 S1 P2 D2 P1 D1 D Q2 Q1 Quantity Before the drought hit Midwest, production of corn stood at Q1 at S1 supply curve while price charged was P1and demand D1. However, after the drought hit the country, the supply curve shifted to S2 and the quantity supplied moved to Q2, thereby increasing prices from P1 to P2. The price increase in this case was caused by a fall in supply of corn, as people scrambled for the few remains, shifting the demand to D2. Adequate Rainfall Theoretically, farmers perceive rainy seasons as a period of bumper harvest. This is because the proper frequency of rainfalls leads to a good yield (Libecap & Steckel, 2010). The result would be that there would be enough supply of the crop in question to feed the nation and to export. Similarly, the forces of demand and supply would help determine the prices of the crops. Since supply would be high, this means

Nursing care specifically related to strokes and stroke care Essay

Nursing care specifically cogitate to strokes and stroke care - Essay Example ischemic strokes and hemorrhagic strokes (Mink & Miller, 2011). Since both these kinds might have standardised manifestations scarcely have considerably different profound etiology and require different management and interventions, it is of beginning(a) vastness to correctly recognize strokes as early as possible from the onset and to intervene in a timely fashion in order to minimize the possible ill-effects and deficits that can arise referable to this disorder (Mink & Miller, 2011). This paper briefly discusses the different types of strokes, their clinical manifestations and operational treatment modalities throws light on the importance of stroke recognition and how fast acting care for strokes can highly affect patient outcomes and focuses on the importance of knowledge regarding strokes for nurses, the role of nurses in care provision for stroke patients and the importance of being up to dat e and knowledgeable on stoke care for nurses. Moreover, it also identifies some shortcomings in the existing lit for stroke care and the role of nurses and provides recommendations for future research in this arena. Stroke Types, clinical presentation and available interventions As pointed out above, strokes can be broadly classified into two main kinds, that is to say ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke (Trembly, 2010). ... Hemorrhagic strokes can be further subdivided into two main types, viz. Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (aSAH) and Intracerebral Hemorrhage (ICH) (Trembly, 2010) base on their underlying etiology. While ICH inflicts al or so 70,000 individuals per year in the US, approximately 30,000 individuals suffer from an aSAH each year (Mink & Miller, 2011). Amongst all kinds of stroke, the type associated with the poorest outcomes is aneurysmal SAH, which is not save associated with high mortality rates but also have high complication rates collect to re-bleedi ng and/or vasospasm occurring later on in the course of the disease, resulting in poorer patient outcomes (Trembly, 2010). The most important fortune factors which are common for all type of strokes include smoking, hypertension and alcohol abuse, while some seek factors which are exclusive for ischemic strokes include diabetes, dyslipidemia, atrial fibrillation, hypercoagulable states and atherosclerosis, amongst others (Mink & Miller, 2011 Trembly, 2010). Patients suffering from either an ischemic stroke or an ICH commonly present with a sudden onset of focal neurologic deficits which has a variable course, but often worsens as time progresses (Mink & Miller, 2011 Trembly, 2010). On the other hand, a typical presenting complaint of patients suffering from SAH is headache, which most patients describe as the worst headache of their lives, often associated with nausea, vomiting and nuchal rigidity (Mink & Miller, 2011). For all types of strokes, diagnosis is based predominantly on the recognition of patient symptoms and neuroimaging modalities such as CT scans which help in elucidating the underlying etiology (Mink & Miller, 2011

Restricting Free Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Restricting Free Speech - Essay ExampleThis query will begin with the statement that freedom of language or quite a freedom of expression is the political right to communicate ones ideas or opinions. While freedom of speech is used synonymously with freedom of expression, the latter includes all acts of seeking, receiving or imparting ideas or information, regardless of the medium use. In this case, it whitethorn entail the use of newspapers, the internet, radio, televisions, fliers, and so on. In about cases, political sciences restrict, with varying limitations, how citizens may express themselves. Some of the most common limitations of speech may be related to obscenity, right to privacy, slander, libel, sedition, pornography, fighting words, hate speech, incitement, copyright violation, make do secrets, non-disclosure agreements, right to be forgotten, public nuisance, public security, public order, classified information, oppression and campaign finance reform. in that res pect argon those that support freedom of expression and believe that in that respect should be no way the government should limit it. On the other hand, there are those that believe that freedom of expression may not be an exquisite idea of any community and that the government should limit the citizen from expression themselves or rather communicate their thoughts. This paper will be looking at the second scenario, why free speech should be restricted. The world is made up of a very diverse group of people. There are Africans, Asians, Europeans, Americans, Latinos, and so on. There are also several different races. In some unfortunate instances, there are people from particular races that believe they should not integrate with the other races as they are top-notch to them. Such groups of people have existed. If people were allowed to practice absolute freedom of expression, then it may exercise out gruesome. People would be spouting racist, homophobic, nationalist, and very off ensive views about others and on their defense, they would say that they are practicing free speech. This is not a very pleasant situation. With the freedom of expression, racial abuse passive exists, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) legally exist and the Neo-Nazis prove particularly difficult to stop. All these are groups of people that preach despite and hatred towards the minority group that spurs conflicts that some quantifys lead to loss of lives. In reality, freedom of speech on the nose exists to promote liberty among different groups of people. Unfortunately, there are those who do not realize this and most of the time misuse the freedom.

Bogota and Copenhagen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bogota and Copenhagen - Essay ExampleThe specific projects in each city that worked towards addressing dit and mobility issues in dense urban centers where the popularization of the use of bicycles and the dedicated bus that works like a train. Copenhagen is already popular for the use of the bicycle as bicycle lanes were part of the urban design and incorporated into the city. Bogota is still in the process of promoting bicycle use among its population. There is, however, one project in Bogota that differs from Copenhagen and that is the use of dedicated buses. This concept is borrowed from Brazil where there are buses that works like a train where it has its own lane and stations.These projects are definitely democratic. In Copenhagen, the use of cheap bicycles is already infix in the societys fabric. Efforts have been done in Bogota to raise the social lieu of using bicycle so that nobody would be embarrassed in using a bicycle. but more than the use of bicycle, the city gover nment of Bogota makes sure that the use of public transportation would provide its passenger to arrive at its destination in the same time as the use of individual(a) cars. This would remove the distinction between the two modes of transportation thereby democratizing mobility. These efforts are both effective because it has achieved its target area of removing the time difference in arriving at their respective destinations. All it takes is a political will. It is not fractious to put dedicated bicycle lanes and to put dedicated lanes and stations to buses.

Airline industry and leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Airline industry and leaders - Essay precedentThe airlines industry is one which constantly faced with considerable global challenges and competition. Constantly turbulence in their craft conditions leaves the fortunes of these companies in the hands of global conditions and conditions of the economy. The co-evolutionary process of industry development and leaders is evident in umpteen of the airlines companies across the world. Leaders have played the dynamic role of developing new business models with the suffer to revitalize and rebuild the industry. Some of the greatest airlines in the world, such as the South West Airlines and British Airways have been successful in overcoming hard times and driven towards success by the initiative, zeal and passion of their leadership teams. It would explain the general theories of leadership providing evidence from another industry (Gilbert, 2009). Section 1 telling leadership has been particularly responsible for bringing about dramatic organizational transformations. However, the leadership styles and types have differed between organizations. The most important ones which are worth mentioning in the context of bringing out organizational changes or transformation of organizations are situational leadership and contingency theory. According to Bass (1990), situational leadership takes into consideration the leaders and the chase as well as the situation. This is complemented with the elaboration of the circumstances, time and place as well (Martin, 2006, p.45).The fundamental underpinning of situational leadership theory is that it does not consider any single or best style of leadership. It is rather relevant to the task to be performed and the most success successful of all leaders is those who can adapt their leadership styles to the needs of the situation.

Money and capital Markets. Evaluate the potential and possible Essay

Money and capital Markets. approximate the potential and possible consequences of a systemic financial crisis - Essay Exampleust be stated the typography will address the problems in UK but the general scenario of mainly of the U.S is expected including relevant information from the stay on of the world.Eichengreen, Barry (2001) stated that there is no agreed definition of financial crises economists and historians typically assert that they know them when the moderate them. (Krugman, 2000). He cited the attempt of Eichengreen and Portes (1985) define a financial crisis as a disturbance that leads to widespread inconvenience among financial institutions and market participants, disrupts the markets capacity to allocate financial resources efficiently, and has repercussions for the nonfinancial economy. Hence he said that international financial crisis, according to their definition, is one where these disturbances and their effects spill over national borders. He thus admits tha t 20 years later, he is of the view that , perhaps predictably, that it is still hard to improve on this definition. He argued that then that the generality of this definition points up the difficulty of moving from theory to empirics since disturbances to financial markets atomic number 18 not independently observed thus they must be inferred from the behaviour of asset prices and quantities (Paraphrasing made).Eichengreen, Barry (2001) made it open(a) as a standard practice in the literature on currency and banking crises, where disturbances to the foreign sub market be inferred from the behaviour of exchange rates, interest rates and foreign reserves and disturbances to the banking system are inferred from interbank rates and changes in deposits (Paraphrasing made).Is international crisis the same as systemic crisis? Eichengreen, Barry (2001) said, International crises that affect different countries at the same time are analytically distinct from systemic crises that threa ten the stability of the global financial system, although the former are arguably a precondition for the latter. Systemic crises are harder to

Should Taxpayer's Continue To Fund Welfare and Do Illegal Immigrants Research Paper

Should Taxpayers Continue To Fund Welfare and Do Illegal Immigrants convey To The Welfare State - Research Paper ExampleThe bottom line of all of this is that every theme has strong points and production lines that are valid to differing degrees. But discounting a massive revolution that restructures the government completely and re-imagines a new set of core American values, the offbeat system should be at very least left intact, and at best vastly restructured and better funded. It is better for American society overall, and more in line with fundamental American values, to continue to fund the benefit state. To understand the welfare state in America one must first understand a little bit about its history. hostile Europe, patronizing liberal-democracy thinking and Christian fundamentals played little role in developing the welfare system in the United States (Trattner 5). Instead, the welfare system in the United States has always been developed, cut or expanded depending o n economic circumstances. It was natural out of the Great Depression as part of the new-sprung(prenominal) Deal Program (Trattner 7). The basic premise at this time was that there were massive numbers of pack who were willing to urinate, but far too few jobs available even after the expansion of federal work programs. President Roosevelt essentially either had the choice of instituting a welfare system or let people starve (Tratter 102). The Great Society period of the 1960s saw welfare expand so that someone who was neither infirm, young nor elderly could get enough to live on through welfare payments from the US government (Lawrence and Strakey 19). The last major change in welfare occurred during the booming economy of the nineties under Bill Clinton. In this first massive cut of the welfare state, which saw welfare take place to the states rather than the federal government, and become a smaller and more temporary program than it had been in the past. At the time of reco rd-low unemployment, booming compensation and a robust economy under Clinton, it seemed inconceivable that anyone who wanted to work would be unable to in the long term, so it seemed that the only people on welfare were people unwilling to work, so the cuts seemed justified. This change has been lauded as one of the best in the history of welfare in the United States, because poorness levels dropped substantially and welfare rolls decreased along with this change (78). The problem, however, is that the decrease in poverty was largely a function of a robust and booming economy, not the changes in welfare law. though the economic affairs of the US have shifted drastically in the last decade, the welfare system instituted by the Clinton administration in 1996 is essentially the same one in operation now. Welfare obviously has a long history in the United States, but this does not explain the arguments for keeping or further funding welfare. There are two main sets of arguments, ideol ogical and some practical. The first ideological argument comes from some of the founding documents of the United States. The Declaration of Independence argues that all men are created equal. The problem, however, is that this is self-evidently not true. Some people are born with a brain that is incapable of accomplishing many tasks whereas others are born geniuses who can unlock the mysteries of science and technology. This fundamental problem has been explained away by saying that this passage authority that everyone should have equality of opportunity

Analysing advertisement form a sociological and marketing perspective Essay

Analysing advertizing form a sociological and marketing perspective - evidence ExampleThey communicate class, personality and taste. The Guinness advertizement shows ostensive communication because of it intends the reference to make personal conclusions. This direction that the advertisement achieved in the development of ostensive stimuli.The aim of ostensive communication is for the communicator to inform the audience approximately the informative purposes, in addition to the communicative intention (Scott-Philip, 2014). The bubbles caused by the water wave in the Guinness advertisement mimics the bubbles formed when the beer is poured in a glass. Mimicking the bubbles produces contextual assumptions, which leads an audience to make conclusions. In the case of the Carlsberg advertisement, the product is presented in comparison to a banana. The advertisement intends the audience to make a conclusion on whether the beer is the best in the world. This is ostensive because of the intention for the audience to make conclusions based on the product. The advertisement achieved the informative intention because it had an intention of informing the audience about something.Ostensive communication is overt because it involves extra layers of communication intentions, which inform an audience about informative intentions. This differs from the covert way of conveying information, which is not manifest. This form of communication requires an individual to pass away inferences. Inferences in covert communication are less controllable. This means that the reader is exposed to manipulation (Anisoara, 2008, p. 1). The Guinness advertisement employs covert communication. The consumer is manipulated to think that the beer is unique to other beers. The success of the advertisement is dependent on the audiences ability to recognize the intentions of the advertiser. Covert communication is based on the tendency of the advertiser to maximize relevance. This increases the h azard to manipulate or predict

Final Review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final Review - engagement ExampleCrime is mostly viewed as an shutdownurance alternative in the range of poverty (Pogrebin, 23). In contradiction to these expectations, some poor communities experiencing low levels of offence because behavior is restricted by unofficial kind and cultural values. Unemployment is a vital issue related to the rates of crime and violence among most modern people. From the World Bank research, people between the age of fifteen and 24 are not employed. This understandably suggests that the unemployed youths are probably more likely to be the dismayners and victims of crime and violence. An abundance of universal adopting proposes that crime and violence are firmly connected with the development and extent of young populace and, particularly, recent guys. Cross-national examination utilizing information on 44 nations from 1950 to 2000 uncovers the rate of youthful individuals in the populace and their level of roaring are together more critical in illustrating the variability of crime. The increase in the number of youths is distinctly evident in the story of the killer Louis Wagner was executed on June 25, 1875. This is as a result of the increase love affairs within the young people. In March of that year on the Isles of Shoals (Smuttynose, particularly), ii jejune Norwegian ladies were clubbed to short. Wagner, a 28-year old Prussian worker, appeared to have no true rational in murdering the two ladies. In spite of the fact that commentators have addressed her observer account, it was Maren who recognized the executioner as Louis Wagner (Capote, 317). A neighborhood angler considered his dory lost from Pickering Wharf close-by at 8 p.m. also it is presently anticipate Louis obtained it. His eleven hour nonattendance furnishes adequate time for the excursion under existing quiet climate conditions (Pogrebin 39). The zoom was in his support the moon was bright and the White Island beacon plainly indicated the way. Mar en affirmed that a passing angle had conveyed her spouses message maxim he might return extremely late. The trail of blood persuaded the jury that the executioner was present with the Hontvet house. Not long after his capture, in a statement, Louis Wagner had dissented that he was so acquainted with the Hontvet house that, if he truly need to burglarize them, he could have completed it effortlessly and without discovery. so Louis Wagners passing is wrapped in false impressions. Either way this was a violent action and a crime. Unemployment can lead to hu piece beings carrying out extremely violent and criminal acts as shown in the straightforward Crime An American Anthology. The high minded man is substance to dream what a devilish man truly does. I considered this entertaining, for no other excuse for why than Schechter appeared to be possibly on the edge, which is a position that any correct crime spectator will in the long run end up enclosed. You take it that individuals wil l ask you for what reason you would at any point need to read such shocking things the Crime. In this segment, the crime is depicted. This could be carried out in two ways (Schechter 339). To begin with, the crime could be depicted as a story. Then again, and this is more common, you can portray the crime scene, then loop once again to the genuine crime as a flashback later in the book as Capote does with Perry Smiths extremely popular jailhouse admission. Chase for the executioners.

Internatoinal business mangement 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Internatoinal business mangement 3 - subsidisation ExampleHence, a prudent thing to do is to expand the market globally in the drive to increase profitability and survival at the same time (Hill, 2012).Expanding internationally has many benefits, which increase chances of survival. An brass is able to boost its reputation and boost the staff morale. In addition, the existing products are introduced to new markets, in particular if they let become less popular in the national markets. The firms overreliance on the domestic markets reduces and the risks, though hard to do away with can be spread. The great sales volume as well translate into higher profitsHowever, in establishing a business internationally, it requires coordinated effort as well as sustained management effort. This practically implies management talent. This is easily attained by only when setting up an economic model. Such a model is meant for solving problems as it offers a structure solution to the dilemma under review.Global industries are those industries whose firms must compete in all terra firma markets. These industries have the characteristic of gaining economies of scale across markets. These companies pursue a global strategy whereby they compete in all markets and they provide the same product for each market. They identify customer needs and wants in the international borders. Global industries are also characterized by high development and recurrent costs, thus requiring more than cardinal market to recover the costs.The following firms are categorized in the global firms category as they have those features. Movie making, bulk chemicals, pharmaceuticals, branded food products, television manufacturing, personal computers and airline travel (Hill, 2012).Multidomestic industries on the separate hand, are those industries with a strategy of producing products and services, which are commonly tailored to individual countries. Innovation comes locally and managers decentra lise decision-making as well as encourage local sourcing. They

Forecast analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

picture analysis - Essay ExampleTherefore, using the decision for Merica 1, these parameters atomic number 18 tightly fitted to the regression line, besides the consanguinity is positive and strongly related. For that reason, in every real GDP forecasted, time and norm price are strongly and positively affecting the real GDP and vice-versa.The adjusted R2showed the total variability accounted by the model. This refers to the relation of finding the variables that the model would account for, or the proportion the model can explain. For Merica 1, the adjusted R2 was 0.99996. The value indicated that a significant percentage of the variables could b explained by the model (99.996%).The coefficient of determinant or estimate is defined as the rate at which conditional flirt withs change. Average price reported the highest changes in the conditional mean compared to other variables. However, time and real GDP reported negative value. Negative coefficient of determinants shows that the expected forecast of the qualified variable would be below zero when the independent or predictor variables were set at zero. The finding from this model indicates the presence of statistical significance linear dependency of the means for time, real GDP and average price.The standard faultings are inferential statistics obtained by dividing standard deviation by the square root of the try on population. Therefore, the larger the error, the smaller the sample size, it is an estimate of the association between the sample population and the standard deviation. palpable GDP reported the lowest standard error as opposed to the average price that had the highest error (smallest sample size).During the financial year 5, there was a sustained increase in the industry sales from 527000 units in the first quarter to 595000 in the second quarter for both Merica 1 and Merica 2. The value minify to 550000 units in the third quarter but later increased to 719000units in the last quarte r for both.The

The Role of Communication and Personality in Negotiation Research Paper

The Role of Communication and temper in Negotiation - Research Paper ExampleThe paper tells that one of the greatest successful negotiations in history is the Israeli Armistice Agreement in 1949 surrounded by Israel and its neighbors. After Israel had attained its independence in 1948, it was invaded by its neighbors led by Egypt. The negotiation was led by a black American cognize as Ralph Bunch, who had grown up under segregation for his color. At the beginning of the negotiation, neither party could however look or talk to the other. It was somewhat a miracle that the negotiation was a success in the end. all over the period of 6 months that the negotiation took place Ralph managed to break down the conflict into manageable bits to be worked on differently in order to lessen the work. The strategy he used was starting with the easier bits as a way of building trust with the parties and then, later on, got into the hard bits. Every time the parties arrived at an agreement, Ral ph would make sure that an agreement was signed just to ensure that the parties get into the habit of signing agreements. An example of one of the greatest failures in the history of negotiations would be the Geneva nuclear talks between Iran and the Western powers. The talk was between Iran and the so-called P5 + 1 group of world powers. The negotiations finally came to a halt when French walked step up of the negotiations with the contend that they needed to get some form of control of the nuclear power. Over the past ten years, in that respect have been a lot of negotiations between the Western powers and Iran on nuclear power. All the negotiations were never a success due to the fact that Iran always got the raw end of the deal. As much as Iran was uncoerced to make a number of concessions, the Western powers, on the other hand, were not so lenient. The negotiation was much one-sided in terms of the concessions. Despite the unfairness, Iran was still willing to sign the de al. However, the Western powers still walked out of the negotiation with a number of excuses, which were quashed by the Russian negotiators.

Corporate Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Corporate Communications - Essay ExampleWhen all of the divisions have their ingest communication theory strategy and there is no overall unified guideline on communications, it is hard to chasteness communications functions, especially when the company is multinational. Sara Lee Corporation is trying to find the balance between alter control of communications and the development of communications strategies at the local level, many other multinationals ar having the same struggle.The major point is to bring all of the communications professionals from marketing, public relations and internal communications into a single discussion section so that the knowledge can be shared, the experience enhanced and the visibility of communications sector within the company ensured (p. 127). Such cross-functional integration over and above departments is destinyed because most of the clip related to communications cuts across different knowledge and skills domains. In addition, the com munications within the company are mostly informal (p. ... ations are separate), while chthonic horizontal structure there is no arrive at line of subordination and each department has a unique function and undertakes the portion of companys overall mission. Moreover, under the vertical structure the corporate communication is placed high within the company and involves the formal collaboration. As it was mentioned on the page 133, the survey of the 75 largest US corporations has proved that the vast majority of these companies have communications and marketing departments functioning on the same level (the horizontal structure). The same tendency is observed in UK and European companies. Therefore, the communications function is divided into two major fields -direct communication (such as employee communication, corporate design, all internal and media communications) and direct marketing (such as branding and advertising). It is worth to none that this division is not always ap propriate for the small business units because the communications function is not developed so wellhead and involves fewer specialists compared to the internationals such as Sara Lee Corporation. Moreover, the preferred interdependence and at the same times reign of two departments reflects their importance to the company. Even though the tendency to divide communications function within the company, there are some exclusions. For example, in the Netherlands the communications disciplines are consolidated in a single department with high position within the company.Sara Lee Corporations tensions are quite traditional for the majority of multinationals. There is the need to separate central communication departments from marketing because some of the communication areas fall outside the operational. For example, marketing has to allot with

Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 11

Political Science - Essay ExampleFrederick Douglass defined the celebration of the fourthly of July from the brain of view of an African American in his 1852 speech at Rochester, New York. At that time, slavery of African Americans was at its peak and he was the first to address the feelings true of an American Slave toward the celebration of Fourth of July as he sees t as mere bombast, fraud, deception, impiety, and hypocrisy covering up crimes which would disgrace a earth of savages (Douglass).The Declaration of Independence was not only approximately getting independency from the Kingdom of Great Britain besides was also about freedom, equality, and liberty. The members of the Continental Congress firmly believed that all men are created equal and thereof have certain unalienable rights including those of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (Digital History). They made it clear in the declaration that it is the righteousness of the government to secure these rights of every American citizen and should a government fail to do so, or becomes a threat itself, the people have the right to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new authorities(Digital History). These are the foundations that were laid by the forefathers of America and this is where the true meaning of Fourth of July lies.In a paper conducted by the National Assessment of Educational Progress in 2011, it was found that only 25 per centime of fourth grade students were aware of the purpose of Declaration of Independence while 26 per cent of the make sense adults surveyed by a public opinion institute were not aware of the fact that America gained independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain (Shammas). It is clear from this survey that the true spirit of Fourth of July is dying.For me, Fourth of July is politic about freedom, liberty, and pursuit of happiness not just for myself, but for all the Americans. Unfortunately, the speech made by Frederick Douglas is still true toda y as not all

Discuss at least one conceptual idea, model or theory in respect of Coursework

Discuss at least wiz conceptual idea, model or theory in respect of your topic area and evaluate it utilize case study material - Coursework ExampleThis report has been organised into eight parts, and it has been appropriately numbered throughout the document. The methodological analysis that was used is reviewing of secondary sources.Unexpected and rapid change has become a modern society norm. However, the land has become a steadily volatile place with water shortages, health epidemics, terrorism, changing consumption patterns, frugal crises, increasing fuel prices, food and global warming confronting most countries (Sterman, 2012). The impact combination of such factors has reignited management of sustainable victimization as a continuing problem for governments and businesses in general, and for tourism specifically. It has been argued that the tourism empyrean is required to be prepared to address current and forthcoming problems in order to maintain the viability of the manufacturing and the resources upon that it is depending and therefore, there is a need for proactive strategic planning and decision-making by governments, businesses and any other stakeholders to growing opportunities, reduce adverse impacts as well as maintaining competitive merits.Furthermore, Sharpley (2000) argued that the sustainable tourism principles are certain in general, but the function of tourism remains justified by the economic development objectives. Recently, Sharpley (2009) dysphoric that the discourse of sustainable tourism has been all going around in circles without a breakthrough and teensy use in the sector, suggesting a need to go beyond sustainable tourism so that tourism development can progress. However, it is still apparent that the rising focus on the climate change, environment, and sustainable development has led to wider planning perspectives for tourism worldwide, overcoming previous fixations with marketing growth and economic strategies (Koz ak & Baloglu, 2010). Such a jailbreak toward a sustainable development platform is representing a major step forward for the tourism

Legal and Ethical Responsibilities Essay Example for Free

Legal and Ethical Responsibilities EssayThis memo is in response to the companys reduction in gross revenue and profit because of the current state of the economy. The company leave alone be executing much monetary value-effective measures because of this present touch. These new procedures ordain begin immediately with approval from the company owners. The first change leave behind be a reduction in the monetary incentives for the sales department. To be successful in implementing this change a complete understanding of the sales process is mandatory.Consumer and salespeople feedback volition be instrumental in gathering the data necessary to make a concise and informed decision on the trump out way to reduce the incentives for every party involved. The first step in the decision-making process is determining the facts of the situation at hand (Hartman DesJardins, 2011, p. 47). The facts ar that the company is losing income because of the economy. Additionally known i s the company profits are on the finished product that meets the need of the consumer.A written survey will ascertain what the specific inescapably and wants of the consumer toward a particular product are. Once the feedback is analyzed, the products most in study by the consumer will elapse with production, whereas the products in less take up will begin interruption until the sales or the demand from the consumer are in need. This step will aid in cutting costs for products with unnecessary production.As an example, in that respect was a significant increase in sales the first few categorys, opposed to last years sales that decreased substantially for the products not in demand. By investigating and discovering products in demand will aid in painting a clearer picture, thus assisting in cutting production cost that will get the company back in line with increase sales and profits. Additionally, investigating and discovering will keep the think of reducing monetary incentive s for the sales force until sales and profits are on the increase again.However, the plan is to at a time again start issuing monetary incentives to the sales force once the company starts again seeing an increase in sales and profits. For this plan to be successful it will be necessary to motivate the sales force with tools to set achievable goals relating to increasing company sales and profits. This as well as has a direct impact on the sales force pertaining to the companys organic law and management.Upper management as well as the owners of the company has to be on the same compliance concerning aiding the sales department in reaching their goals by providing motivation and support to the sales department. A loaded support system is imperative if the sales team along with the organization is to reach their primary objectives. This plan will also include evaluations on the progress of the sales department pertaining to reaching their goals. The second and lowest change wil l be implementing a month-long layoff for some of the production employees.Laying-off production workers for a month will cut production costs of producing products unnecessary for the economy. While keeping in mind that this layoff will also have an adverse result on producing products in demand. Instead of laying off production workers, the more(prenominal) cost-effective way would be to keep them at work to help meet the current demand for products. The workers still working with the organization will receive more overtime, and this is not cost-effective because the result is increasing payroll for employees.Although removing monetary incentives for the sales department and laying-off a portion of the production department is legal, it does nothing for morale. ethically there will be some repercussions to implementing these changes. Some of the repercussions may include employees leaving the organization and a decline in sales means possible bankruptcy. Implementing a more amic able plan will have a more positive influence that will promote a higher morale and happiness. With a higher morale, this will more likely promote a boost in productivity.

Trade Unions in Bangladesh Essay Example for Free

switch over Unions in Bangladesh screen pile centres in bangladesh and its impact surrenderation Transcript 1. TRADE UNIONS IN BANGLADESH AND ITS IMPACTSubmitted ByMd. Omar Faruq Chowdhury -045 12601 Submission troth 28th November 2012 1 2. Contentsa. Definitionb. Causes of organizing flip unionsc. Objectivesd. History of dish out Unionse. Limitationsf. Positive impactsg. Negative impactsh. Present Scenarioi. Suggestionsj. Conclusion 2 3. Definition- championship Union is an make-up of workers who have banded together to carry through commongoals such as protecting the justice of its shift, achieving higher pay, increasing thenumber of employees an employer hires, and better work conditions. -An organized association of workers in a traffic, group of switch overs, or profession, formed toprotect and further their rights and bear ons.-A group of employees in a peculiar(pre noneinal) sector, whose aim is to negotiate with employees overpay, job security, working hours, etc. using the collective power of the members.-The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improvingthe conditions of their involvement.3 4. Causes of organizing trade unions Provision of benefits to members professional training, legal advice and representation for members is still an important benefit of trade union membership. Industrial action make out unions may enforce strikes or resistance to lockouts in furtherance of particular goals. Political activity Trade unions may promote legislation favourable to the interests of their members or workers as a whole. To this end they may pursue campaigns, undertake lobbying, or financially support individual candidates or parties. Conditions of employment and any grievances ar settled through trade unions. Bargaining rights Trade unions bargain and ensure the status, rights, compensation and demands of workers of the modern world of industry. Contribution in economical growth Trade unions a re growing speedily in an economy because of the expansion of business and economical growth.4 5. ObjectivesTrade unions are the only way to manage, compliant, and function the attention force. Lots of objectives arethere to organize trade unions.1. To defend or improve the wages and working conditions of workers and to read about a change inthe economic order.2. To strengthen their (labor) bargaining power collectively to do and achieve all their rights.3. To dully protect all other interest of the workers .And from the directions point of attitude theobjectives as writtena. To reduce the numberof negotiation.b. To specify work rules, disagreements and grievances to give the better solution to workers claim.c. To establish the efficient communication between the employers and watchfulness to enforce the predictable standards.d. To enhance the overall organizational potential workers can also be sometimes inspired to form and organize trade union. In fact, objectives of a trade union are not defined rather these are changing according to the command of the economy and overall industry. When these objectives are not settled then the rivals are started.5 6. History of Trade Unions-The British rulers introduced Trade Union Act, 1926. The main purpose of the Act was to provideregistration for trade unions and in certain respects. except the Act did not contain any provisionregarding strikes.-In 1929, the Trade Disputes Act put restrictions on strikes in earthly concern utility services and laidprovision for the establishment of tribunals to adjudicate upon the labor disputes.-In 1947, the Industrial Disputes Act placed the conciliation and adjudication machinery for thesettlement of industrial disputes on a permanent footing. 6 7. History of Trade UnionsThe Pakistan Period (1947-71)-The East Pakistan Trade Unions Act, 1965 was enacted repealing the Trade Unions Act, 1926.-The Labor Disputes Act, 1965 was enacted.-Industrial Relations Ordinance, 1969 was enacted integrating the above two Acts.Bangladesh Period (1971-onwards)-Government of Bangladesh declared a labor polity in 1972.The right to strike and collectivebargaining in the nationalized industries was prohibited for six months by Presidential order no. 55 inMay 1972.-In 1973, the right to strike and lockout, as granted by IRO, 1969 was withdrawn.-In 1974 Act comp permitely suspended the republican rights of workers by prohibiting trade unionactivities such as strikes, lock-outs, collective bargaining.-The military regime of 1975 imposed restrictions on the rights of collective bargaining.-The Industrial Relations (Amendment) Ordinance, 1977 liberalized the Rights of Freedom ofAssociation-The Labor Policy of 1980 restored the right to freedom of association to a enormous extent-In 1982 the military regime banned trade union activities, strikes, and right of freedom of association. 7 8. History of Trade Unions-Full trade union activities were restored by the democrati c government in 1991.-In 2006, an updated, consolidated and unified version of labor laws was enacted.-During the Emergency in 2007-2008 that lasted for 23 months, trade unions andcollective bargainingwere prohibited and the determination of collective bargaining performer could not be made.-However, full trade union activities were restored by the democratic government in 2009. 8 9. LimitationsIn Bangladesh Trade Unions have a lot of unavoidable problems1. Lack of consciousness Trade union are not actually completely aware about employees legal rights and duties.2. Lack of Unity In Bangladesh trade unions are separated for political influence.3. Lack of companionship The workers of Bangladesh dont have enough knowledge about theirrights and duties.4. Political influence In Bangladesh, trade unions work a part of political parties not as a freeright saving association.5. Division of trade union Bangladesh is a country where every organization has more tradeunions in name only. Th e overall productivity got down. 9 10. Positive impacts Trade union plays a major role in creating ideal working conditions. Trade union always helps management to fabricate better policies for workers. Trade unions negotiate for the standard wage and benefits with the management. Trade union helps the management to increases the productivity as well as the profit. Political influences existence makes the trade union not to substitute in management decisions. Trade union is hugely helping the management to produce more and implementing management tactics. 10 11. Negative impacts Trade Unions are creating a surplus of manpower but not of productivity. Trade union of Bangladesh bargains more than they understand because of the limitations of their knowledge. If dont consult then they strike. Trade Unions have tally power of management then clashes are started. In companies labors are awarded for good work and threatened for giving work. But if its punished then trade union inter fere and dont let to happen the punishment. So it increases crime of the labors. Trade union leaders always try to save their interest first then the labor. For the power of politics trade union always dishonor the management. 11 12. Present ScenarioCategories Total number of Number of unions Number of members unions/federations includedNational federation 32 1264 1,263,66Industrial federation 108 721 640,221Garments federation 15 80 50,14Basic union 5,242 2,069,61 12 13. Suggestions Strengthening bilateral collective bargaining for solving problems quickly and effectively. Multiplicity of trade union creates the rivals in a union. So it must be reduced. Political involvement must be reduced. Organizationmust support financially as trade unions support the worker. Training programs under trade union should be helpful to develop the skills of the workers. Trade unions function should be change magnitude and widened throughout the organization. Union leader must be given importance and encourage the members. If trust between workers and management increases, productivity increases. Management must help and guide trade unions to settle industrial clashes and crisis. Trade unions always should demand reasonable thing to the management. 13 14. Conclusion-The industrial relation system is pre-dominantly confrontational in nature rather than cooperative inBangladesh.-Although in recent times the rate of unionization has increased in the RMG sector, trade union affiliationis low in Bangladesh compared to many other developing countries.-The promotion of independent trade unions and collective bargaining can contribute to political andsocial stability and consequently create more booming climate for foreign investment.-Trade unions have an important role to play in settling disputes between workers and management overwages by way of collective bargaining.-All the developing countries trade unions were influenced politically, but they used politics to create abetto r solution.-Bangladesh should also start practicing like Japanese trade union which has a single union for singleenterprise. there is no conflict, no unfair means and no strikes in productivity and the growth of theoverall economy.

Escalating Costs of Social Health Insurance Essay Example for Free

Escalating Costs of Social Health amends EssayUn alike each other expanse in the world, the joined States continu in ally experience rising cost of wellness negociate provision. Wolfe (1999) reports that wellnessc be be has been change magnitude at a high rate for decades, it is estimated that e precise 40 months, the share of Gross Domestic intersection point (GDP) spent on wellnesscare goes up by 1 share. Health expenditure which stood at 12. 3 pct of GDP in 1990 increased to 16. 0 bulge of GDP in 2006 and is projected to pull ahead 20 portion in the next 7 age.Between 2005 and 2006 alone, wellnesscare pass increased by 6. 7 percent, exceeding nominal GDP growth by 0. 6 percent, to a whooping $2. 1 trillion, representing an estimated $7,000 spending per person (Kuttner 2008 Catlin et al 2008). Various factors including inflation, aging population and advances in medical technology has been indicted as been answerable for the global increase in wellness expe nditures, however, the American situation appears to be peculiar.Kuttner (2008) call fors that the proliferation of new technologies, poor diet, need of exercise, the tendency for supply (physicians, infirmarys, tests, pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and novel treatments) to generate demand and the culture of the American litigation, resulting in spendthrift malpractice litigations and the practice of defensive medicine, all adds together to ensure that the country experiences the largest and fastest growth in health expenditures, while at the same time, defeating efforts at cost containments.Like every other developed country, health indemnification systems, especially affable health redress systems constitute the primarily methods of health financing (Carrin and James, 2004). This parade ensures that most of the cost of healthcare are compensable by third parties, either through ordinary establishments, as in fond (public) health insurance policy systems, or by un der dog bodies, as in mystical health insurance system, or in close to racing shells, a admixture of both (Wolfe, 1999).The mixture of toffee-nosed and social health insurance is present in almost every country, with variations in their cover age. eon in most European countries, social health insurance is deeply ingrained in social fabric and provides the largest source of funding and insurance reportage (Saltman, 2004), the vast majority of Americans befool their health insurance coverage through employer based private insurance, with the rest of the country covered by any of the some(prenominal) public health insurance syllabuss (Glover et al 2003).It is estimated that employer private health insurance covers approximately 63 percent of the population, with 51 percent of these amount covered by their own employers, while the remaining 41 percent are covered as a workers dependent 14 percent are covered by public programs, 5 percent covered by mortal insurance policies w hile an estimated 17 percent of the population are uncovered by any insurance (Devi, 2005).Medicare is largely regarded as the primary depicted object (social) health insurance program in the United States, providing coverage for an estimated 44 gazillion Americans over the age of 65. It is to a fault estimated that Medicare provides health insurance coverage for about 7 million Americans under the age of 65 who keep back a disability or chronic condition (Fact Sheet, 2007).Social health insurance is a vital part of any countrys health care and health financing program, in some part of Europe, there is a general contention that social health insurance is not alone an insurance arrangement, but a way of life, they are seen as a part of a social incomes insurance that seek to redistribute wealth and health risk take downly amongst the population, however, the rising cost of these systems, not just in the United States but across the modern world, threatens the system.Before an an alysis of the costs and factors driving costs of social health insurance systems, especially in America and in other European countries, it is of import to first briefly describe the underlying principles of the social health insurance system and its difference from the private health insurance programs.This will be followed by a description of the United States Medicare program and some social health insurance programs in selected European countries and then a look at the costs of these programs. Steps taken towards cutting costs of the social insurance programs and the differences in cost cutting approaches among the United States and European Union countries will be examined.Lastly, future approaches that could help ameliorate the financial challenges veneer the United States public insurance programs shall be recommended. Social Health restitution Social health insurance, in its basic principle, in any society achieves a set of societal objectives through its peculiar normal of financial cross subsidies, which covers redistribution from the healthy to the ill, from the well off to the less well off, from the young to the old and from the individual to the family.This redistributive focus of any social health insurance program distinguishes it from what is nominally regarded as insurance, thus, in some(prenominal)(prenominal) societies, it entrenches solidarity, income redistribution and is thus seen as a key part of a broader structure of social security and income restrain that sits at the heart of civil society (Saltman, 20045) Saltman and Dubois (2004) contend that although Ger legion(predicate) is considered the source of the modern day form of social health insurance, when it codified existing voluntary structures into compulsory state supervised legislation in 1883, the archives of social health insurance (SHI) dates back longer to the medieval guilds in the late Middle Ages.However, they concur that the structure and harmoniumization of SHI over time has considerably evolved the number of raft covered has increased from a small number of workers in particular trades to a larger portion of the population, the central concept SHI has evolved from wage replacement a death benefit into chip inment for and or provision of outpatient physician work, inpatient hospital care and drugs thirdly, the administrative structure of SHI has alike evolved from cooperative workers association to state mandated legislative character, beginning with Germany in 1883 and the most recent, 1996 in Switzerland.Structurally, social health insurance everywhere possesses three common characteristics. Social health insurance programs are administered privately in both funding and in the provision of health services as a result of their private administration, social health programs are self regulating, and lastly, as a consequence of their independence and self regulation, social health insurance programs are relatively stable, both in organ izational and financial terms (Saltman, 2004).As a fall out of these structural characteristics, social health insurance posses several core components that differentiate them from private health insurance programs. Under SHI, the raising of funds is tied to income of beneficiaries, usually in the form of a trans upraise and fixed percentage of wages. As a result, contributions are risk independent and thus encourage maximal risk pooling. Also, collection and administration of revenues for the program are handled by not-for-profit and sometimes, state run funds and these funds are usually managed by table members that are usually representative and elected. The United States Medicare program posses most or all of the characteristics of a social health insurance program.For over 40 years, the program has successfully provided healthcare access for the elderly and millions of mountain with disability. It is regarded as the nations single largest health insurance program and it cover s a wide range of the society for a broad range of health services. For example, Potetz (2008) report that one out of ever five dollars spent on healthcare in 2006 came through the Medicare program. The program is also reported to fund, at least, one third of all hospital term of enlistments, nationally. In most European countries too, national, public (social) health insurance programs reportedly covers a large equipoise of the population, in most cases, reaching up to 100 percent coverage.Saltman and others (2004) reports that in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland and from 1995, Israel, all rich person health insurance systems where (public) social health programs plays predominant roles in organization and funding of health care services, where between 60 to 100 percent of the population are mandatorily covered. They further argue that even countries like Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom, Greece and Portugal that have a tax fun ded National Health Service schemes, segments of SHI based healthcare funding also exists. Explaining the difference between social health insurance programs and private health insurance, Thomson and Mossialos (2004) contend that private health insurance play very insignificant role in the health systems of several European countries, either in terms of funding or access to healthcare.Unlike in the United States where more than 60 percent of the population are covered by private employer based insurance, private health insurance programs covers a relatively small proportion of the population and accounts for less than 5 percent of the total health spending, with the set off oution of France, Germany and the Netherlands. The most common difference between social and private health insurance includes eligibility, risk pooling and benefits. For social health insurance programs, contributions are mostly based on a fixed or set outing proportion of wages, without regard for risks, thu s a wider proportion of the people are eligible and benefits i. e. health services offered are broader with less out of pocket costs (Thomson and Mossialos, 2004 Saltman 2004). For private health insurance, the reverse is the case in most situations.Especially in for-profit private health insurance systems, contributions are adjusted according to risks and for the most part high risks individuals are rejected or expected to buy off higher premiums. Consequently, eligibility requirements are strict out of pocket expenses might be higher, while services provided vary significantly across programs, depending on an array of factors. Depending on the generally functions and services offered by private health insurance, the relation to social health insurance can be substitutive, complementary or supplementary. Substitutive private health insurance programs provides insurance covers that is otherwise available from the public programs purchased by individuals or groups who are excluded f rom the SHI.The larger proportion of the US society is excluded from the public insurance programs, which are usually available to the elderly, the disabled or the very poor, the rest of the population must rely on private employer based insurance. However, in European countries with impressive SHI, only certain individuals with income above a certain upper threshold are excluded from the public insurance program e. g. in Netherlands and Germany, while the rest of the population are eligible. Complementary private health insurance programs provide cover for services not fully covered by the SHI programs or totally excluded, the Medicare + pickax plans is an example of such covers. Lastly, supplementary private health insurance provides cover for faster access and also increased consumer choices for individuals who can afford it (Thomson and Mossialos, 2004).Eligibility and CoverageThe United States Medicare program is essentially for the elderly, thus, individuals are eligible for Medicare coverage if they are citizens of the United States or have been a permanent legal resident for five continues years and over 65 years old. Individuals younger than 65 years of age can also be eligible for Medicare coverage if they are disabled and have been on the Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) or the Railroad Retirement Board benefits for a period of both years. Further, individuals with end state renal disease (ESRD) or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) known as Lou Gehrigs disease also qualifies for Medicare coverage. However, many people with disability do not qualify for SSDI benefits and by extension, Medicare.To qualify for these benefits, disabled individuals must have a family member under age 65 who have a work history which include Federal Income Contribution fleck tax (FICA), an individual may also qualifies for SSDI on the FICA contributions of a parent as a Childhood Disability Beneficiary (CDB) or as a disabled better half of a deceased spo use. Whichever qualification route applicable, an individual qualifies for Medicare two years after he/she starts receiving the SSDI benefits, except for the Lou Gehrigs disease where Medicare benefits starts in the first month SSDI payments are received or in the case of the ESRD where Medicare benefits starts within three months of the first dialysis (Fact Sheet, 2007). As of 2007, it is estimated that Medicare provides cover and health services to about 43 million Americans.This figure is expected to double to 77 million by 2031 when the baby boomers of the post World contend II period start to retire. However, as mentioned previously, SHI in European countries offer universal coverage that is mandatary in some countries. Coverage for these countries varies from 63 percent in Netherlands to 100 percent coverage in France, Israel and Switzerland. In most of these countries, it is usually the highest income groups that are either allowed or required by law to leave the social heal th programs for private health insurance (Saltman, 20047). Benefits Benefits for Medicare members have continually been modified. The original program has two parts, Medicare Part A and part B.The Part A program known as Hospital Insurance, covers hospital stays with stays in skilled nursing facilities for limited periods if certain qualifying criteria are met. much(prenominal) criteria include the length of hospital stay, which most be three days, at least, excluding the discharge day and stay in skilled nursing facility must be for conditions diagnosed during the hospitalization. Medicare Part A allows up to a maximum of 100day stay in skilled nursing facilities, with the first 20 days completely paid for by Medicare and the remaining 80days paid in part and requiring a co-payment from the beneficiary. The Medicare Part B covers services and products not covered by Part A, but on an outpatient basis.The benefits under this coverage includes physician and nursing services, scienc e lab diagnostic tests, influenza and pneumonia vaccinations x-rays and blood transfusions. Other services include renal dialysis, outpatient hospital procedures, Immunosuppressive drugs for organ transplant recipients, chemotherapy, limited ambulance transportation and other outpatient medical treatments carried out in a physicians office. This coverage, to some extent, also includes medical equipments like walkers, wheelchairs and mobility scooters for individuals with mobility problems, while prosthetic devices, such as breast prosthesis after mastectomy or eye glasses after cataract surgery are also covered. The recently added Part C and D of the Medicare benefits slightly deviate from the original Medicare concept.After the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 came into effect, Medicare beneficiaries were allowed the option of receiving their Medicare benefits through private health insurance plans if they do not want to go through the original Medicare plans. These became known as Medi care + Choice as beneficiaries could choose any private health insurance plans and have it paid for by Medicare. The Medicare + Choice or Part C arrangement later became known as the Medicare Advantage conception after the Medicare prescription medicine Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 came into effect. The Part D plan, on the other hand, covers mainly prescription medicine drugs and anyone in the original Plan A or B is eligible for this plan.However, in other to receive the benefits of the Plan D, a beneficiary must enroll and be approved for a Stand-alone Prescription Drug Plan (PDP) or Medicare Advantage plan with prescription drug coverage (MA-PD). However, because Plan D is effectively operated by private health insurance companies, there are no standardized benefits, like the plan A and B the private insurance companies could choose to cover some drugs or classes of drugs and not cover others, with the exception of drugs excluded from Medicare coverage. Ben eficiaries are therefore restricted to the drugs coverage of the plans they choose (Merlis, 2008 Potetz, 2008). Contributions towards Social Health Insurance Medicare financing, like social health insurance everywhere, is financed through a complex mix of taxes, contributions, co-payments and the likes.The most in-chief(postnominal) source of financing for the Medicare expenditures is through the payroll tax imposed by the Federal Insurance Contributions Act and the Self-Employment Contributions Act of 1954, while other sources of financing includes general revenue through income taxes, a tax on Social Security benefits, and payments from states required for the Medicare drug benefits which started in 2006. In addition to these, beneficiaries also contribute right away to Medicare financing through premiums, deductibles and co-insurance. It is reported that income cases, physician do charge beneficiaries an additional out-of -pocket balance billing to cover for services rendered ( Potetz, 2008). The federal payroll taxes are paid by the working population or by the beneficiaries throughout their work history.The tax equals 2. 9 percent of gross wages, with half (1. 45 percent) deducted from the workers salary and the other half paid by the employer. Initially, there was a ceiling on the maximum amount any single person can contribute however, beginning from 1994, the maximum limit was removed. Self employed people who do not have an employer to cover the other half of their taxes are mandated by law to pay the full 2. 9 percent of their estimated earnings. However, the contributions from the beneficiaries vary considerably depending on the plan and also range from premiums, deductibles, co-payments or in some cases, the balance billing mentioned previously.

Aim in Life Essay Example for Free

Aim in Life EssayMost bulk in the world have some ambitions in life. A petty merchant has an ambition to become a big business man, a clerk to be a high officer, a student to be a doctor or engineer. Some desire for wealth, some desire for fame and reputation. A proper heading in life keeps a person shining and glowing in his future life. My aim in life is neither to collect money this or by that way nor for fame. It is my desire to become a well qualified doctor or a scientist. I do not just beseech to be an ordinary doctor who spends his times in his laboratory trying to find out juvenile drugs and medicines to remove the suffering of millions of people. The world call ups with thankfulness the name of the man who gave to the world vaccination.The world will remember forever the man who gave us penicillin. As a doctor it is my real gaze to server the poorly suffering humanity too. Our country is still under development and it has become necessary for all of us, curious ly for doctors to acheive sound progress in the field of new drugs and medicines, And for the prosperity and solidarity of pakistan we should work hard with spiritual dash and zeast. I have an ambition to do something in this world so great as the doctors and the courages founders did in the past.I would like to give the world some new drugs and injections that will cure some of the umpteen disease that people are still suffering from. In my opinion, wealth, fame and any other kind of freelance(a) gain are hollow and baseless if earned through unfair means. In my ambition, it is great wish to help the suffering people. For lawful earnings it will be my foremost dut to server the humanity, by sacking to the rural areas of this under developed country in order to help the poor and humble people for their happiness and entire satisfaction.

Body modification Essay Example for Free

Body modification EssayNowadays, students squander more(prenominal) opportunities to choose what sport they want to play. One of them, for example, is Ultimate Frisbee. It is a rising sport hither in the Philippines. It is played with a disc with 7 players per team, 4 boys and 3 girls or 5 boys and 2 girls moreover the 4/3 ratio is more applied in almost all leagues and tournaments. Basically, the closing of this game is to score in an end zone and played with a 50-min. beat cap or in the finals undecomposed a 15-pt. point cap. There contract been countless leagues and tournaments for students. One kind of tournament is the NUCC or the National Ultimate Collegiate Championship.It is tournament exclusively for students and alumni of contrastive schools. I asked some of the student-athletes on how they manage their time on vie and academics. It is pretty hard to manage time with the training document and their academics, as I am one of the student-athletes. Some of the ones that I asked answered that they put their academics first before they go to play or to train and some procrastinate their acads for ultimate Frisbee while some have a specific schedule for training. All of the student-athlete say that they sometime have to sacrifice one for the other only they try to get back what they lost.They say that its time management that you need when you be a Student-Athlete. Every sport has their own sports attire and gear. And Ultimate Frisbee has its own specific attire and gear. Examples of these are dry-fit clothe with the teams name on the front and the players number on the back, dry-fit shorts, and provide or spikes.Injuries are almost a part of playing this sport as sometimes you sightnot prognosticate that you will have a tiny bruise or even yet break your front cruciate ligament or ACL or your mortise joint so some of the players who already injured their ACL or ankle have knee or ankle support when they play, after their recovery, a nd to protect them from the harmful rays of the sun they damp sunblock, hats, and rash guards.Sometimes the disc slips off the hands of the players hence they wear a special baseball glove that is anti-slip. The pictures below are examples of what Ultimate Frisbee players wear. There is also a new up-rising sport in the human of Board Sports here in the Philippines. It is Longboarding or Downhill Longboarding.Basically, a dourboard is tho the bigger brother of the skate because the longboard is bigger, wider, and more stable than the skateboard. The rule of Downhill Longboarding is like any other race-oriented sport, whoever goes through the finish linage wins but the twist is you are in a board with speeds reaching up to 75 km/h depending on what the track is and the fastest known hill here in Metro manilla is in Sierra Madre. There are also different types of competition in Longboarding not just downhill racing, and they are Slide jams, and Push races.Slide jam is a competit ion where you can ground what your hardest and coolest tricks and judges decide who the winner is. Push race is a race where you push or in the players jargon term padyak from the simoleonsing line to the finish line and the distance is very far. The last new push race held here in Metro Manila, the Sector 9s Push put ont Pollute which was a 10-km race. These competitions have various categories and they are Mens A, Mens B, Womens, Amateur, and Open. There is a very special kind of playing longboard and it combines all the three types, it is Freeriding.In Freeriding, you can do taburageous drifts and slides which is on an open road unlike the other three where you are playing on a closed road. And under Freeriding is Freestyles, on this type you can do dances, grab tricks, and manuals or wheelies. Like all other extreme sports, Downhill Longboarding has also natural rubber rules like wear safety gears and leathers. Safety gears are helmet, gloves, knee pads, and elbow pads. In downhill racing, the safety gears are just helmet, gloves and leathers. And in the other two, its helmet, gloves, knee pads and/or elbow pads. Here are the photo examples of LongboardingThe Hipster Carmela Llorca An Article on Hipsterism on psychologytoday. com The Sad Science of Hipsterism The Psychology of Indie Bands, PBR and Weird Facial Hair Published on September 8, 2010 by Jeff Wise in Extreme Fear Behold the hipster, the stylishly disaffected mother of twentysomethings whose fog of twee whimsy envelops Williamsburg and the East Village. Most who encounter the hipster in its natural home ground respond in one of two ways derision or ridicule. But science does not cast judgment. Its goal is to explore and explain dispassionately, whether the object of study be the noble eagle or the lowly nematode.So what does science have to tell us intimately this fascinatingly misundersas welld breed, the autochthonous North American hipster? Surprisingly much. In a paper in an upcomin g prune of the diary of Consumer Research entitled De legendologizing Consumption Practices How Consumers Protect Their Field- Dependent Identity Investments from Devaluing Marketplace Myths, authors Zeynep Arsel and Craig J. Thompson delve sibylline into the phenomenon of hipsterism, and in particular its most abiding mystery if everyone hates hipsters, why would anyone want to be one? The long and short of it is that they dont.In general, psychologists who study consumers understand that people are largely motivated to spend money not just on things that they materially need, but that bolster their consciousness of identity. They purchase not just goods and services, but mythologies. Imagining themselves as rugged, rebellious patriots, they buy a Harley-Davidson. Imagining themselves as respected and well-heeled, they buy a Lexus. Hipsters, though, play along a different paradigm. Their trouble is that their purchases tend to place them within a category whose mythology the y despise.Thats right zero likes hipsters, not even hipsters. As Arsel and Thompson put it, the beats of the 50s and hippies of the 60s and 70s, both of which had an admirable authenticity about them even if you didnt care for the particulars, eventually gave rise to the millennial hipster, which came to be represented as an uberconsumer of trends and as a new, and rather gullible, target market that consumes cool rather than creating it. As examples of the dorkification they cite online parodies of the iconic Mac v. PC ads and this viral YouTube video.The upshot macrocosm that any people who legitimately enjoy all the trappings on hipsterhood the authors mention Pabst Blue Ribbon, Puma, and the trucker hat must psychologically distance themselves from the demographic group of which they are so clearly a part. And so their subconscious brains have to work double time so that they can convince themselves that the things they buy do not reflect on their true character. Arsel and Thompson interviewed hipsters and asked them how they multitudet with the problem of being set as such(prenominal).The answer, they found, was to demythologize the hipster experience, that is, to psychologically reclassify their own behavior as being separate from the aggregate activity that the rest of the world lumps together as hipster. They interviewed one consumer, identified as Scarlet, who told them Im not gonna lie, I shop at Urban Outfitters sometimes, only when its on sale of bunk I like doing a lot of the things that are the hipster thing to do, but I do them because I like to do them, not because theyre the cool thing to do.And because I am immersed in the mixer scene where thither are a lot of hipsters, people mistake me for being one of them. The deeper raillery is that those who try to assert their independence from the commodification of identity wind up tapping into another marketplace myth, what the authors call the myth of consumer sovereignty. This is the idea that by assiduously selecting from all the identity markers available for purchase, a person can baste one that authentically reflects their true self independent of the marketplace.Some of the hipsters that Arsel and Thompson talked to are well aware of the futility of this project. Said one, identified as Tom I dont necessarily know every single unearthly obscure band. I dont necessarily want to. But I mean, yeah, who do I hang out with? I hang out with like a bunch of tattooed indie dorks. So, yeah, I guess I am but I wouldnt self-identify, I think. Id listen to stuff thats outside the mainstream or its like I dress weird compared to the majority of the population. I just try not to think about it too much.The minute you start identifying with a subcultureyou kind of lose individuality, surrender part of your identity, and we dont wanna do that. This, then, is the essence of being a hipster. Pretending you arent one. Filipino hipsters today can be found mainly in Cubao E xpo or in The Collective in Makati. Many hipsters hate that they are called hipsters because it would connote them to a certain stereotype. Jobless, irresponsible, beer-drinking, night-dwelling twentysomethings who have vast knowledge of some obscure topic that is not mainstream. The goal is, the more you know of this something that has been never heard of, the higher you are in the hipster ladder. additional points to those who are environmentally aware, more points if you are vegetarian and more points if you only smoke either marijuana or cigarettes. Sarcasm and wit are the main means of discussion and usually topics flow from which was the best circa for cut films to Philosophical take on my coffee choices Nonetheless, this stage of life is a purgatory for those who dont have anything solid they can call a career or just lazy to actually start on and would rather debate on the importance of a job. Dont get me wrong, there are ACTUAL HIPSTERS.Those whose actual being is an admir er of the past eras, have an interest in something mirthful or probably, really an environmentalist who goes around riding bikes. The Professional Theresa Llamas Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. Katz, D. Braly, K. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol 28(3), Oct 1933, 280-290. The degree of agreement among the students in assigning characteristics from a list of 84 adjectives to different races seemed too great to be the result solely of the students contacts with members of those races.Individual experience may have entered into a students judgment, but it probably did so to confirm the original stereotype which he had learned. Because human beings from time to time exhibit all kinds of behavior he could find confirmation of his views. By omitting cases which contradict the stereotype, the individual becomes positive(p) from association with a race that its members are just the kind of people he always horizon they were. The manner in which publi c and private attitudes are bound up together was shown in the score of the 10 racial and national groups as determined by the definiteness with which students assigned characteristics to them.The definiteness of the class picture of a race, however, had little relation to the prejudice exhibited against that race. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) COLLEGE STUDENTS WITH TATTOOS AND PIERCINGS MOTIVES, FAMILY EXPERIENCES, PERSONALITY FACTORS, AND PERCEPTION BY OTHERS GORDON B. FORBES Body piercing, which is prevalent in recent adults, has been refered to be associated with features usually related to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) such as high-risk behaviours and psychopathological symptoms and might be motivated by a wish to deal with prior traumatic experiences.However, to date, no query has investigated the relationship between this radiation pattern and PTSD symptoms. The present research aims to investigate the possible relationship between soundbox piercing and PTSD symptoms in French-speaking young adults. According to our results, having two or more body piercings was associated with a twofold increased risk for make headway above the cut-off score for PTSD on the PTSD checklist. Our findings suggest that two or more body piercings might serve as an identifiable marker for PTSD symptoms and may have important implications for clinical screening. Copyright 2012 John Wiley Sons, Ltd.Read More http//www. amsciepub. com/doi/abs/10. 2466/pr0. 2001. 89. 3. 774 PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TATTOOED AND NONTATTOOED INDIVIDUALS VIREN SWAMI This study examined differences between tattooed and non-tattooed individuals on a range of personality and individual difference measures. A community sample of 540 individuals from the southern German-speaking area of central Europe completed a survey consisting of measures of the Big Five personality factors, compulsion for Uniqueness, Self-esteem, sensation seeking, Religious a nd Spiritual Beliefs, Attitudes Toward Tattoos, tattoo possession, and demographics.Preliminary analyses showed that 22% of the total sample possessed at least one tattoo. Further analyses showed that, compared with non-tattooed (n = 420) individuals, tattooed participants (n = 120) had significantly higher scores on Extraversion, Experience Seeking, Need for Uniqueness, and held more positive Attitudes Toward Tattoos, although effect sizes of these group differences were generally small- to medium-sized. These results are considered in relation to the contemporary prevalence of tattoos in socioeconomically developed societies.Read More http//www. amsciepub. com/doi/abs/10. 2466/09. 07. 21. PR0. 111. 4. 97-106 Exploring professional stereotypes and learning for inter-professional practice an example from UK passing play level cordial work education. Bell, Linda and Allain, Lucille (2010) Exploring professional stereotypes and learning for inter-professional practice an example fro m UK qualifying level tender work education. Social Work Education, 30 (3). pp. 266-280. ISSN 0261-5479 This paper explores the concept of stereotyping from UK social work students and educators perspectives.It discusses findings from an exploration of inter-professional practice with two cohorts of final year social work students in a UK university. The authors adapted a questionnaire (Barnes et al, 2000 Hean et al, 2006) to school discussion about inter-professional working with BA and MA students participating in a specialist shaver and family social work module. This paper analyses students responses to the questionnaire and explores wider issues relating to professional stereotyping and identity, discussing the usefulness of these concepts for social work education and collaborative practice.Results suggest that student social workers held both positive and negative assumptions about specific occupations / professions (such as medicine), and that these acted as a mirror or t ool for reflecting back their own views of social work identity/ies. We argue that this pedagogic exercise in identifying stereotypical assumptions about others may encourage the building of a positive sense of own professional identity. We further suggest that students should be encouraged to construct a core social work identity that is dynamic and responsive to changing contexts.Body modifications, sexual activity, and religious practices. Rivardo MG, Keelan CM. Source department of Psychology, Saint Vincent College, 300 Fraser Purchase Road, Latrobe, PA 15650, USA. mark. emailprotected edu Relations among body modifications (i. e. , tattoos and piercings), sexual activity, and religious practices and beliefs were examined. In old studies, Koch and colleagues found the type of body modification seemed to interact with sex to predict sexual activity but only weak, negative correlations were found between tattoos and religious beliefs and practices.In a sample of 236 students (M age=20. 1 yr. ) from a small Catholic liberal arts college, numbers of tattoos and sexual partners were correlated statistically significantly. opposite results differed by t sex men with piercings were more likely to have had premarital telling, and women who had had premarital intercourse had more piercings than women who had not. There were no statistically significant correlations among body modifications and religious variables.

How Is Science Combating Food Shortages in Africa Essay Example for Free

How Is acquirement Combating Food Shortages in Africa Es affirmAfrica has been fighting a constant battle against starvation for decades. What with an uncontrollably developing population and harsh dry climate, its no wonder that not only Africa, entirely the creative activity could be in for a big crisis the lack of fodder. With over 7 billion people in this world to feed, one billion in Africa, its a wonder that our planet can support this mass population, and the business office is going to get much worse unless there is a firmness as to how the shortage of food can be fixed. Since the 1970s, scientists give up experimented with transmittedly Modified foods (GM foods). That means that theyve changed the organisms, and the DNA, in high society to enhance whatever aspects of the food or fix any possible faults. So far, GM organisms assume proved to step-up food return, which is a relevant and numberive solution. This solution has indeed raised arguments, creating economical, ethical and societal implications.Genetically modified foods could be the solution to save Africa from the endless starvation and malnourishment. It offers something completely new it is a biotechnical solution that is different to any other option considered to aid those suffering from the lack of food in Africa. GM crops grow faster, produce much more, need less time and less labor. It would be a constant solution. Unlike transferring food crossways the oceans in order to give aid, GM foods would be able to be produced in the countries that actually will need and go for them, instead of relying on other wealthier nations to bring it to them. This would in like manner teach these less developed countries how to manage on their own, and not being supported or assist by the more economically developed countries.Even more positive aspects of this solution are, that these GM crops constitute longer shelf-life, meaning that they do not have to be consumed immediately, but they can be stored for longer. moreover they dont require as some(prenominal) natural resources and materials as normal crops, which is good antecedent Africa itself doesnt offer that many, which is one of the reasons as to why its in the situation that it is in proficient now. This would give an exceptional amount of aid and hope to the people of Africa as it would fix one study issue that has been developing throughout the years, and succor them defeat other fusss that their nations are facing.However, there are perpetually downsides to these new inventions. Firstly, GM foods havent been in the know for long enough to know if they have any side affects that humans should be concerned of. Many people resist the idea of genetical modification because of this uncertainty. The foods and crops could always trigger allergic reactions, which superpower be fatal in nations that offer light medical aid, or any health impacts for humans and even animals. However, the certainty that these problems exist is only an assumption. For as far we know, there might be no bad consequences or effects that GMOs might bring. Another issue is how this will work in the nations of Africa.The leaders of the nations might decide that this is an uncertain and indefinite solution, that might only bring harm to their countries. Or some nations might fear change, even if it could help the starvation issues that theyre struggling with. The only thing that the developed nations could do in this case, would be to drive and negotiate as to how this solution can help them, not only temporarily but in the long run as well. Also, it will be a very cheap solution, which will be a major attraction to many nation as their economical situations arent that great. Furthermore, the yearly comprise of individuals having to purchase the genetically modified seeds will be an issue, as the continent is generally very poor.The effect of growing and consuming genetically modified crops is sti ll unknown, however many possible and realistic assumptions have been made. A possible dilemma is the harm that these organisms could cause to other organisms in the nature. For an example, the mortality rate of monarch butterfly butterfly caterpillars has gone up recently, due to the wind blowing pollen from genetically modified B.t corn to milkweed plants, that the caterpillars consume. A nature study was held in order to go up out whether this was true or not, and the results were in accompaniment pointing towards the pollen being the cause of death.There are also countless other victims of genetic engineering, however they cannot be prevented as the toxins that kill the pests are also harmful to other insects. Unfortunately, in order to grow tidy crops without a monetary loss, the use of these B.t toxins is essential. Another issue that could arise from this is cross-breeding of these herbicide tolerant crops and the weeds themselves, resulting in a superweed that would be immune to these toxins. That could cause in mass destruction of crops and a great financial loss to the farmers, as well as an unnatural new specie.An issue that could arise within the use of GM crops is the strain on the economies of the nations using them. It would be quite expensive to transport the GM foods across the globe, and it would also take some time. Also, the cost of these seeds can be expected to rise due to the engineering science used to create them. A more developed country and farm could possibly afford the annual cost of these crops, however a less economically developed country cannot. A solution for this problem could be funding the production and interrogation of GM foods. An example of such a funder is the Rockefeller Foundation, who has founded the research and production of genetically modified rice. GM rice would be a very costly process but with the help of funders and other wealthy companies the cost of expense can be reduced.Since the population of alr eady 7 billion is estimated to almost double in the upcoming 50 years, the worlds biggest dilemma at the moment is to find a solution as to how to feed all these people and how our natural resources wont be all used up. GM crops is one of the many solutions thought to solve this problem, however, like the rest of them, it comes with many different positive and negative aspects. Furthermore, since it is such a new invention, and not a lot of research has been done yet, the effects and consequences are unknown.If the massive population growth could be stalled for a few decades, say by introducing a one-child-policy, then the development of solutions such as GM crops could be completed meanwhile. This would be a really effective way to provide food aid to the peoples of the world, especially Africa, in order to defeat hunger and starvation, and it would also slow down the growth of the population, maybe even declining it.

Qualitative research Essay Example for Free

Qualitative enquiry EssayAbstract This paper is the first of a series of lead articles relating to a strip claim conducted at Fair line of business University to assess aspects of the rapid introduction of Information engineering science at the institution. This article deals with the nature of the problem submitd by Fairfield University, the marks of the cutting methodological digest, and lays the foundation for the selection of this investigate proficiency for the current rent. The paper takes with an Introduction section to familiarize the reader with the grapheme organization. The following section on Case Methodology explores the tale, and some of the applications of the technique. The section ends with specific research protocols for tecs. Introduction Fairfield University is a private crowing arts institution of around 3,000 full time downstairsgrad students and about 1,000 graduate school students. The undergraduate students be distri merelyed throug h the College of Arts and Sciences, the give instruction of Business, and the School of Nursing. The graduate students are in the Graduate School of Education, the School of Business, and the School of Nursing. at that place are besides part time students in the School of continue Education and the BEI School of Engineering. As with many opposite private institutions of higher education, Fairfield University faces many ch completelyenges. These challenges come from the declining nation of college age students and the growing cost of running the institution. The lit willing support the preceding statement (Crossland, 1980), unless provide little comfort to the institution. One of the electron orbits of greatest concern to college managers is the continuing cost of psychoanalyse applied science.With the ceaseless need to increase staff salaries, it is like salaries, inadvisable to reduce the outlay on schooling technology. Inter take ins that were conducted by this resear cher with the deans and managers indicated that some of the peer institutions of Fairfield University are in fact doing as much if not to a greater extent in this area. and so any interruption in the effort to maintain technological currency would solution in a competitive disadvantage for the institution. Therein lies the administrative financial challenge.The expense on information technology essentialiness be maintained at a time of declining revenues (Nicklin, 1992). The field of information technology at a university is really broad and could encompass many technologies hitherto not considered within its purview. However, in that respect has been a relentless and indeed accelerating pace of convergence of the technologies in telecommunications, library services, and video services. The current try out is concerned only with the aspects of information technology as it relates to academic compute and will focus on instructional and research computing.The goals of this m editate complicate an examination of the (a) managerial and (b) economic aspects of the rapid encyclopaedism of information technology. The objectives deriving from those goals are An assessment of the categories of computer map in higher education. An evaluation of the managerial issues of computing, including the centralization/decentralization of computing, client/server computing and the aspects of the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) Establish a basis for understanding the current and future economic aspects of information technology acquisition.The research questions arising from the above objectives were as follows Objective 1 above is addressed by the question What figure of speechs of acquisition emerge from the current computing environment and the perceived needs for computing? Objective 2 is addressed by the question What characteristics of the categories of computing use contribute to the patterns of acquisition? The five categories actual by King and Kraem er (1985) and adapted for use by Levy (1988) in his baptismal font at the University of Arizona, are use in this theatre of operations, to examine the computing use at Fairfield University.Objective 3 is addressed by the question What managerial issues arise from the rapid acquisition of information technology and how all- all important(p)(prenominal) consent those technologies become to the organization? Objective 4 is addressed by the question How will the institution balance the need for technological changes with the need to continue the accomplishment of office tasks?. Samuel Levy (1988) conducted a playing area of instructional and research computing at the University of Arizona. This study replicates and extends the Levy (1988) study, and was conducted at Fairfield University.The current study extends the Levy (1988) study in its examination of aspects of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and Client/ host computing. Levy (1988) granted the use of the grounds study as capture for the research project, and this researcher withal use the literature to confirm the use of boldness methodology in the study at Fairfield University. The history and development of solecism methodology is reviewed, in support of the current effort study at Fairfield University. There adopt been items of intense use followed by periods of disuse of this technique, as documented by Hamel, Dufour, and Fortin (1993) as intumesce as others.The relevance of that history to this study is important in that it establishes the known advantages and disadvantages of the methodology. The particular technique of a single- slip-up study is reviewed, since that is the specific implementation of a matter study at Fairfield University and was also used by Levy (1988). Case Study Methodology The history of chemise study research is marked by periods of intense use and periods of disuse. The earliest use of this form of research can be traced to Europe, predominantly to France.T he methodology in the United States was most closely associated with The University of Chicago Department of Sociology. From the early 1900s until 1935, The Chicago School was superior in the field and the source of a great deal of the literature. There was a wealth of bodily in Chicago, since it was a period of immigration to the United States and various aspects of immigration of different national groups to the urban center were studied and reported on (Hamel et al. , 1993). Issues of poverty, unemployment, and other conditions deriving from immigration were ideally suited to the object lesson study methodology.Zonabend (1992) stated that discipline study is d star by giving special attention to completeness in observation, reconstruction, and synopsis of the cases under study. Case study is done in a way that incorporates the views of the actors in the case under study. The field of sociology is associated most strongly with case study research, and during the period leadi ng up to 1935, several problems were raised(a) by researchers in other fields. This coincided with a movement within sociology, to make it more than scientific. This meant providing some valued measurements to the research design and analysis.Since The Chicago School was most identified with this methodology, there were serious attacks on their primacy. This resulted in the denigration of case study as a methodology. In 1935, there was a public strife between Columbia University professors, who were championing the scientific method, and The Chicago School and its supporters. The outcome was a victory for Columbia University and the sequent decline in the use of case study as a research methodology. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) was careful to decline the criticisms of case study as poorly founded, made in the midst of methodological conflict.He insist that the drawbacks of case study were not organism attacked, sooner the immaturity of sociology as a discipline was organism d isplayed. As the use of quantitative methods advanced, the decline of the case study hastened. However, in the 1960s, researchers were becoming concerned about the limitations of quantitative methods. Hence there was a renewed interest in case study. Strauss and Glaser (1967) developed the purpose of grounded supposition. This along with some well regarded studies accelerated the renewed use of the methodology.A frequent criticism of case study methodology is that its dependence on a single case renders it incapable of providing a generalizing conclusion. Yin (1993) presented Giddens view that considered case methodology microscopic because it lacked a sufficient number of cases. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) and Yin (1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993, 1994) forcefully argued that the relative size of the figure whether 2, 10, or 100 cases are used, does not transform a multiple case into a visible study. The goal of the study should establish the parameters, and consequently should be applied to all research.In this way, even a single case could be considered acceptable, provided it met the established objective. The literature provides some insight into the acceptance of an experimental proto suit to perceive the singularity of the object of study. This insures the transformation from the local to the global for explanation. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) characterized such singularity as a concentration of the global in the local. Yin (1989a) stated that general applicability results from the delimit of methodological qualities of the case, and the rigor with which the case is constructed.He slender the procedures that would avenge the required methodological rigor. Case study can be seen to satisfy the three tenets of the qualitative method describing, understanding, and explaining. The literature contains numerous examples of applications of the case study methodology. The earliest and most graphic examples are to be found in the fields of Law and Medicine, where cases make up the large embody of the student work. However, there are some areas that know used case study techniques extensively, particularly in government and in evaluative situations.The government studies were carried out to determine whether particular programs were efficient or if the goals of a particular program were being met. The evaluative applications were carried out to assess the effectiveness of educational initiatives. In two types of investigations, merely quantitative techniques tended to obscure some of the important information that the researchers needed to un subdue. The body of literature in case study research is primitive and limited (Yin, 1994), in comparison to that of experimental or quasi-experimental research.The requirements and inflexibility of the latter forms of research make case studies the only viable alternative in some instances. It is a fact that case studies do not need to have a minimum number of cases, or to randomly select cas es. The researcher is called upon to work with the situation that presents itself in separately case. Case studies can be single or multiple-case designs, where a multiple design must follow a replication rather than sampling logic. When no other cases are available for replication, the researcher is limited to single-case designs.Yin (1994) pointed out that generalization of results, from every single or multiple designs, is made to theory and not to populations. Multiple cases strengthen the results by replicating the pattern-matching, thusly increasing confidence in the robustness of the theory. Applications of case study methodology have been carried out in High-Risk Youth Programs (Yin, 1993) by several researchers. The effects of community-based measure programs have been widely investigated victimisation case methodology.Where the high risk youth studies assumed a single case evaluation, these studies have typically used a order of battle of cases as a multiple-case study . This has been true in the various substance abuse prevention programs that are community-based (Holder, 1987 Sabol, 1990 Yin, 1993). Numerous such studies sponsored by the U. S. General Accounting Office are distributed in the literature between Evans (1976) and Gopelrud (1990). These studies have gone beyond the quantitative statistical results and explained the conditions through the perspective of the actors. Thus case study evaluations can cover both process and outcomes, because they can include both quantitative and qualitative selective information. There are several examples of the use of case methodology in the literature. Yin (1993) listed several examples along with the appropriate research design in each case. There were suggestions for a general approach to designing case studies, and also recommendations for exploratory, instructive, and descriptive case studies. Each of those three approaches can be either single or multiple-case studies, where multiple-case studie s are replicatory, not sampled cases.There were also specific examples in education, and management information systems. Education has embraced the case method for instructional use. Some of the applications are reviewed in this paper. In exploratory case studies, fieldwork, and information accrual whitethorn be undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses. This type of study has been considered as a preliminary to some social research. However, the framework of the study must be created ahead of time. Pilot projects are very useful in determining the final protocols that will be used.Survey questions whitethorn be dropped or added based on the outcome of the pilot study. Selecting cases is a difficult process, but the literature provides guidance in this area (Yin, 1989a). Stake (1995) recommended that the selection offers the opportunity to maximize what can be learned, knowing that time is limited. Hence the cases that are selected should be easy and willing subjects. A good instrumental case does not have to defend its typicality. Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causative studies. In very complex and multivariate cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques.Yin and Moore (1988) conducted a study to examine the reason why some research findings get into practical use. They used a funded research project as the unit of analysis, where the upshot was unceasing but the project varied. The utilization outcomes were explained by three rival theories a knowledge-driven theory, a problem-solving theory, and a social-interaction theory. Knowledge-driven theory means that ideas and discoveries from basic research eventually become commercial products. Problem-solving theory follows the same path, but originates not with a researcher, but with an external source identifying a problem.The social-interaction theory claims that researchers and users belong to overlapping professional networks and are in freque nt communication. Descriptive cases require that the researcher begin with a descriptive theory, or face the possibility that problems will occur during the project. Pyecha (1988) used this methodology to study special education, using a pattern-matching procedure. some(prenominal) states were studied and the data about each states activities were compared to other, with idealized theoretic patterns. Thus what is implied in this type of study is the formation of hypotheses of cause-effect relationships.Hence the descriptive theory must cover the depth and scope of the case under study. The selection of cases and the unit of analysis is developed in the same manner as the other types of case studies. Case studies have been increasingly used in education. While law and medical schools have been using the technique for an extended period, the technique is being applied in a variety of instructional situations. Schools of parentage have been most aggressive in the implementation of case based acquire, or active learning (Boisjoly DeMichiell, 1994).Harvard University has been a leader in this area, and cases developed by the faculty have been published for use by other institutions. The School of Business at Fairfield University has revised the curriculum so that in place of the mortal longitudinal courses in the areas of Management, Marketing, Operations, Finance, and Information Systems, students take one course. That course is knowing around cases that encompass those disciplines, but are presented in an integrated manner. The students are therefore made aware of the interrelatedness of the various disciplines and begin to think in terms of wider problems and solutions.Later courses add the international dimension to the overall picture. Case studies have been used to develop critical thinking (Alvarez, et al. , 1990). There are also interactive language courses (Carney, 1995), courses designed to broaden the students horizons (Brearley, 1990), and even for technical courses (Greenwald, 1991), and philosophical ones (Garvin, 1991). This investigation is a case study of the aspects of Information Technology that are related to client/server computing, the Internet, and the World Wide Web, at Fairfield University.Thus this paper examines issues that will expand the readers knowledge of case study methodology as it relates to the design and execution of such a study. Yin (1994) recommended the use of case-study protocol as part of a carefully designed research project that would include the following sections Overview of the project (project objectives and case study issues) Field procedures (credentials and portal to sites) Questions (specific questions that the tec must keep in mind during data collection) Guide for the report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p.64)The quintessential characteristic of case studies is that they strive towards a holistic understanding of cultural systems of action (Feagin, Orum, Sjober g, 1990). Cultural systems of action refer to sets of interrelated activities engaged in by the actors in a social situation. The case studies must always have boundaries (Stake, 1995). Case study research is not sampling research, which is a fact asserted by all the major researchers in the field, including Yin, Stake, Feagin and others. However, selecting cases must be done so as to maximize what can be learned, in the period of time available for the study.The unit of analysis is a critical factor in the case study. It is typically a system of action rather than an individual or group of individuals. Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined. Case studies are multi-perspectival analyses. This means that the researcher considers not just the voice and perspective of the actors, but also of the pertinent groups of actors and the interaction between them. This one aspect is a salient point in the characteristic that case studies possess. They give a voice to the powerless and voiceless.When sociological studies present many studies of the homeless and powerless, they do so from the viewpoint of the elite (Feagin, Orum, Sjoberg, 1991). Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. speed of light and Anderson (cited in Feagin, Orum, Sjoberg, 1991) asserted that triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies. Stake (1995) stated that the protocols that are used to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations are called triangulation. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the inclemency of the processes.In case studies, this could be done by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 1984). The problem in case studies is to establish meaning rather than location. Designing Case Studies Yin (1994) identified five components of research design that are important for case studies A studys questions Its propo sitions, if any Its unit(s) of analysis The logic linking the data to the propositions The criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin, 1994, p. 20). The studys questions are most apparent to be how and why questions, and their definition is the first task of the researcher.The studys propositions sometimes derive from the how and why questions, and are cooperative in focusing the studys goals. Not all studies need to have propositions. An exploratory study, rather than having propositions, would have a stated purpose or criteria on which the success will be judged. The unit of analysis defines what the case is. This could be groups, organizations or countries, but it is the primary unit of analysis. Linking the data to propositions and the criteria for interpreting the findings are the least developed aspects in case studies (Yin, 1994).Campbell (1975) described pattern-matching as a useful technique for linking data to the propositions. Campbell (1975) asserted that pattern-matc hing is a situation where several pieces of information from the same case may be related to some theory-based proposition. His study showed, through pattern-matching, that the observed drop in the level of traffic fatalities in Connecticut was not related to the lowering of the speed limit. His study also illustrated some of the difficulties in establishing the criteria for interpreting the findings.Construct validity is especially problematic in case study research. It has been a source of criticism because of potential investigator subjectivity. Yin (1994) proposed three remedies to counteract this using multiple sources of evidence, establishing a chain of evidence, and having a draft case study report reviewed by reveal informants. Internal validity is a concern only in causal (explanatory) cases. This is usually a problem of inferences in case studies, and can be dealt with using pattern-matching, which has been described above. foreign validity deals with knowing whether th e results are generalizable beyond the immediate case. Some of the criticism against case studies in this area relate to single-case studies. However, that criticism is directed at the statistical and not the uninflectedal generalization that is the basis of case studies. Reliability is achieved in many ways in a case study. One of the most important methods is the development of the case study protocol. Case studies can be either single or multiple-case designs. single(a) cases are used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a crotchety or extreme case (Yin, 1994).Single-case studies are also ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have retrieve to a phenomenon that was previously inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to negate misrepresentation and to maximize the investigators access to the evidence. These studies can be holistic or embedded, the latter occurring when the same case study involves more than one unit of analysis. M ultiple-case studies follow a replication logic. This is not to be confused with sampling logic where a selection is made out of a population, for inclusion in the study.This type of sample selection is unbecoming in a case study. Each individual case study consists of a whole study, in which facts are gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts. Yin (1994) asserted that a case study investigator must be able to operate as a senior investigator during the course of data collection. There should be a period of training which begins with the examination of the definition of the problem and the development of the case study design. If there is only a single investigator, this might not be necessary.The training would cover aspects that the investigator needs to know, such as the reason for the study, the type of evidence being sought, and what variations might be expected. This could take the form of discussion rather than form-only(prenominal) lectures. A case study protocol contains more than the survey instrument, it should also contain procedures and general rules that should be followed in using the instrument. It is to be created prior to the data collection phase. It is essential in a multiple-case study, and desirable in a single-case study.Yin (1994) presented the protocol as a major component in asserting the reliability of the case study research. A typical protocol should have the following sections An overview of the case study project (objectives, issues, topics being investigated) Field procedures (credentials and access to sites, sources of information) Case study questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in mind during data collection) A guide for case study report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p. 64). The overview should communicate to the reader the general topic of inquiry and the purpose of the case study.The field procedures mostly involve data collection issues and must be prope rly designed. The investigator does not meet the data collection environment (Yin, 1994) as in other research strategies hence the procedures become all the more important. During interviews, which by nature are open ended, the subjects schedule must dictate the activity (Stake, 1995). Gaining access to the subject organization, having sufficient resources while in the field, clearly scheduling data collection activities, and providing for unanticipated events, must all be planned for.Case study questions are posed to the investigator, and must serve to remind that person of the data to be accumulate and its possible sources. The guide for the case study report is a lot neglected, but case studies do not have the uniform outline, as do other research reports. It is essential to plan this report as the case develops, to avoid problems at the end. Stake (1995), and Yin (1994) identified at least six sources of evidence in case studies. The following is not an ordered list, but ref lects the research of both Yin (1994) and Stake (1995)Documents Archival records Interviews Direct observation Participant-observation tangible artifacts Documents could be letters, memoranda, agendas, administrative documents, newspaper articles, or any document that is germane to the investigation. In the interest of triangulation of evidence, the documents serve to corroborate the evidence from other sources. Documents are also useful for making inferences about events. Documents can lead to false leads, in the hands of uninitiated researchers, which has been a criticism of case study research.Documents are communications between parties in the study, the researcher being a vicarious observer keeping this in mind will help the investigator avoid being misled by such documents. Archival documents can be service records, organizational records, lists of names, survey data, and other such records. The investigator has to be careful in evaluating the accuracy of the records before using them. Even if the records are quantitative, they might still not be accurate. Interviews are one of the most important sources of case study information.There are several forms of interviews that are possible Open-ended, Focused, and Structured or survey. In an open-ended interview, key respondents are asked to comment about certain events. They may propose solutions or provide insight into events. They may also corroborate evidence obtained from other sources. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant, and seek the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity. The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set questions.This technique is often used to confirm data collected from another source. The structured interview is comparable to a survey, and is used to gather data in cases such as neighborhood studies. The questions are detailed and developed in advance , much as they are in a survey. Direct observation occurs when a field visit is conducted during the case study. It could be as simple as casual data collection activities, or formal protocols to measure and record behaviors. This technique is useful for providing additional information about the topic being studied.The reliability is enhanced when more than one observer is involved in the task. Glesne and Peshkin (1992) recommended that researchers should be as unobtrusive as the wallpaper. Participant-observation makes the researcher into an active participant in the events being studied. This often occurs in studies of neighborhoods or groups. The technique provides some unusual opportunities for collecting data, but could face some major problems as well. The researcher could well alter the course of events as part of the group, which may not be helpful to the study.Physical artifacts can be tools, instruments, or some other physical evidence that may be collected during the stu dy as part of a field visit. The perspective of the researcher can be broadened as a result of the discovery. It is important to keep in mind that not all sources are relevant for all case studies (Yin, 1994). The investigator should be capable of dealing with all of them, should it be necessary, but each case will present different opportunities for data collection. There are some conditions that arise when a case researcher must start data collection before the study questions have been be and finalized (Yin, 1994).This is likely to be successful only with an experienced investigator. Another important point to review is the put on of using rival hypotheses and theories as a means of adding character reference control to the case study. This improves the perception of the directness and serious thinking of the researcher. Analyzing Case Study Evidence This aspect of the case study methodology is the least developed and hence the most difficult. As a result, some researchers ha ve suggested that if the study were made contributory to statistical analysis, the process would be easier and more acceptable.This quantitative approach would be appealing to some of the critics of the case study methodology. However not all case studies lend themselves to this type of analysis. Miles and Huberman (1984) suggested analytic techniques such as rearranging the arrays, placing the evidence in a matrix of categories, creating flowcharts or data displays, tabulating the frequency of different events, using means, variances and interbreed tabulations to examine the relationships between variables, and other such techniques to facilitate analysis. There must first be an analytic strategy, that will lead to conclusions.Yin (1994) presented two strategies for general use One is to rely on theoretical propositions of the study, and then to analyze the evidence based on those propositions. The other technique is to develop a case description, which would be a framework for o rganizing the case study. Lynd conducted a widely cited Middletown study in 1929, and used a formal chapter construct to guide the development of the analysis. In other situations, the original objective of the case study may help to identify some causal links that could be analyzed. Pattern-matching is another major mode of analysis.This type of logic compares an empirical pattern with a predicted one. Internal validity is enhanced when the patterns coincide. If the case study is an explanatory one, the patterns may be related to the dependent or commutative variables. If it is a descriptive study, the predicted pattern must be defined prior to data collection. Yin (1994) recommended using rival explanations as pattern-matching when there are independent variables involved. This requires the development of rival theoretical propositions, but the overall concern remains the degree to which a pattern matches the predicted one.Yin (1994) encouraged researchers to make every effort to produce an analysis of the highest quality. In order to accomplish this, he presented four principles that should attract the researchers attention Show that the analysis relied on all the relevant evidence accept all major rival interpretations in the analysis Address the most significant aspect of the case study Use the researchers prior, expert knowledge to further the analysis Stake (1995) recommended categorical aggregation as another means of analysis and also suggested developing protocols for this phase of the case study to enhance the quality of the research.He also presented ideas on pattern-matching along the lines that Yin (1994) presented. Runkel (1990) used aggregated measures to obtain relative frequencies in a multiple-case study. Stake (1995) favored coding the data and identifying the issues more clearly at the analysis stage. Eisner and Peshkin (1990) placed a high priority on direct interpretation of events, and lower on interpretation of measurement data, whic h is another viable alternative to be considered.