Separation of Church and State Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Separation of Church and State - Essay ExampleAmerican attitudes concerning church- utter relations are assailable to two conflicting forces. First, Americans are very religious. In comparison with citizens of other industrialized nations, Americans report an extraordinarily high degree of religious belief, association, and practice. This means that, at times, there is a strong enticement on the part of some citizens to transform their religious principles into public policy. Specifically, if religion is a significant influence in a citizens life, that citizen seems more probable to seek government support of religiously based values. Second, and perhaps, on the contrary, the notion of a constitutional separation of church and state (a phrase that appears nowhere in the U.S. Constitution) is an influential symbol in American political discourse. Though there is little agreement relating to the precise meaning of such separation, the principle itself is not normally challenged in Am erican politics. Thus, Separation of church and state was definitely not an invention of the Enlightenment political theory that exponent have prompted similar thoughts in the mind of the respected Thomas Jefferson. Certainly, it misleads to analyze the lively experiment in political terms at all, for the Providence politics was just as certainly and decisively rooted in Protestant theologies as was the Puritans city on a hill.The encompassing description of liberty of sense of right and wrong was the systematizing principle of society, and it produced a kind of severance of church and state. It is thus significant to keep in mind that the cleavage was meant to protect the church and the soul from the pervert influence of the magistrate, to protect the garden of the church from corruption in the boondocks of the world. The quest for spiritual purity quite factually led into the political realm, where he was basically traditional, if not authoritarian.

History of women in the military Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History of women in the military - Research Paper pillow slipIt has only been since recent decades that women have been welcomed into the military, but before this, it was something that was often done discretely.Even though women had often be seen in wars in the ancient and gallant battles, such as Joan of Arc in 1429 (Willens, 1996), it was in the early 1900s that women were being spoken against about why they should not participate in war. One of the biggest arguments was that women should cheque at home and tend to their family, leaving their husbands to battle. Many women accepted this, though many more had the counterargument that the men could stay home while the women went off to fight. This was eer quickly shot down, though, as the mothers were the ones that children really relied on.Other arguments included the fact that women were not physically built as men were, and therefore unlikely to plough the physical burden of being in a war the emotional nature of a woman wa s also looked down upon, with many males and military officials believe that women did not have what it took to handle to emotional and often traumatic impacts of war.Women, however, fought their own battle to be allowed the chance to fight the other battles. The more that military officials completed how many women were sneaking into the wars, the more open they became to accepting them, also realizing that they could be huge assets in the outcome of the wars. Their male counterparts took their willingness as something positive that could be use to the war after all, nobody could deny someone who sincerely wanted to fight for a cause or for their country. Men quickly found the positives in this level of strength.It was beingness War I that really brought the change that women had been fighting for when the United States Navy began to accept women for enlisted service. After a successful first World War, it became clear that it would be beneficial to have women enlisted by

Open Topic under Composite Materials Term Paper

Open Topic under Composite Materials - Term Paper ExampleAs set forth in Wikipedia, there are two main kinds of wind turbines one is plain Axis Wind Turbine and second is Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (1). However, Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) are the most widely used institution for commercial purposes. Earlier standard parts and sections were used for manufacturing of turbines however, with advancement in technology, change materials and parts started to be designed for turbines introducing alternate solutions for manufacturing (Eker, Akdogan, and Vardar 2917). UTILIZATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS IN WIND TURBINES Two or to a greater extent materials are arranged with each early(a) with a specific medium in between them to form a abstruse material. The fiber material is usually harder and stronger than the binding medium (matrix) being used. This not only rearranges structural and physical properties like rigidity, toughness and corrosion but also unlocks new dimensions to electrical, thermal and environmental properties of materials forming a composite. The aim of modern investigate is to reduce the cost, improve performance and impact resistance of the composite materials for their better application in a wide range of fields. These discussed significant features of composite materials beget made these future materials for wind turbines (Eker, Akdogan, and Vardar 2917). In general, metallic, organic and inorganic materials called matrix, fibers, particulates, stamps and layers having limited geometry constitute composite materials. The binding medium, matrix, creates a phase impact by producing scattering of other material structures in its own structure. This brings changes to overall physical, mechanical and chemical properties of the composite materials. These materials fibers, matrix and reinforcements are chemically inert and dissolved among each other. It is apt(p) to note that in metallic composites even a small amount of dissolution m ay affect the overall properties of the material (Eker, Akdogan, and Vardar 2918). Purpose of using composite material in turbine blades is to exploit one or more of the physical, mechanical and other properties of materials forming the composite. To achieve this, numbers of methods are used but the principle is analogous as to improve weak properties of the materials in composite to achieve a good performance turbine blade. WIND ENERGY A convertor is the main component that is required to convert the kinetic energy of motor due to blade rotation into electrical or heart energy, thus producing a power disposed by following equation P = Av3 where ? = Aerodynamic efficiency constant ? = Density of air A = Area of tubrine-plane v = Wind velocity The two or more blades are installed on central part (disc) of turbine called rotor to form a wind turbine which is rotated by action of wind on turbine blades (Brondsted, Lilholt, and Lystrup 506). Wind turbines usually consist of two to th ree large blades made of wood, plexiglass or a composite material. The basic design principle comprehend the wind turbines is that of an aero engine turbine or air plane wing where lift is used to make use of energy. Complete turbine assembly consisting of two or more blades is installed in vertical plane on horizontal axis into wind. In a similar fashion, wind energy is captured using same basic design principle. Stall and pitch regulations are used to control the speed and power of

Movie analysis of the TV Movie Bonanza Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Movie analysis of the TV Movie Bonanza - Essay ExampleMost of all, it was a time when Americans were not quite settled with members alfresco of their race, including, but not limited to the Chinese.Second, we will, next, take a look at the place where Bonanza had taken place, in Virginia City, Nevada. The scenes were set on the Nevada Ranch territory. Ben Cartwright, himself, was a wealthy rancher who owned a 600,000-acre ranch, the largest in the territory. However, despite his riches, he never forgot how he started, where he came from and that he needed to help others struggling along the way. bingle of the values that Ben Cartwright strived to instill in the audience of the movie of Bonanza is brotherly love, whether it was through their father, Ben Cartwright, through his sons, Adam, Eric Hoss and Joseph Little Joe, or another neighbor in the community. Ben Cartwright prided himself on being a Christian, and, withal, the fact that he was enable to instill in his sons the right way to live and to treat others.Another value that Ben Cartwright strived to instill in the viewers of Bonanza was neighborly love. He was always willing to help out another neighbor in need or if they needed his advice. Ben Cartwright also taught his sons how to stick together as a family, and, in turn, his sons reached out to other members of the community in the same capacity. The Cartwrights always stuck together as a family, no matter what, and tried to help each other through the rough times.Victor Sen Hung played the role of Hop blab, the Cartwrights family cook. Now, while most people talent have viewed the role of the familys cook as subservient, Hungs role of Hop Sing was incorporated into the Cartwrights television family because, not only did the Cartwrights view Sing as their cook, but they also viewed him as their friend.The Cartwrights included

Anatomy and Physiology Ch. 1 Study Guide Essay Example for Free

Anatomy and Physiology Ch. 1 Study Guide EssayAnatomy the study of the grade or structure and arrangement of soundbox parts and their relationshipsPhysiology the study of the cultivates of the eubstance parts or structures and their relationships in bearinglife processes.Levels of Structural OrganizationThe human body consists of directs of structural organization that atomic number 18 associated with one another.There be six levels of structural organizationI. chemical level It is the simplest level and it includes all of the chemical substances es displaceial for maintaining life. These substances are made up of atoms.An atom is thesmallest unit of matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.Atoms combine to form molecules, which may be simple orcomplex. distinguishable types of molecules combine to form oranelles (little organs). Organelles are specific structures that carry out specific functions.2. jail cellular level The cell is the basic unit of structureand function and of life. Cells vary in size, shape, and function and may contain many types of organelles.3. tissue level Tissues are groups of similar cells thatperform a specific function.There are four major types of tissues in the human bodya.epithelial tissue It is found lining bodycavities and covers the surface of the body.It functions inprotection, secretion, and excretion.b. connective tissue It is found on the surfaces ofand in organs and tissues and functions in protection, support, and attaching organs and tissues to each other and to the walls of body cavities.c. muscle tissue It functions in the movement ofbody parts and organs, and in the movement of substancesthroughout the body.There are three major types of muscle tissue(1)skeletal muscle It is found attached to andcovering bones and it functions in bodymovement.(2)cardiac muscle It is fixed in the heartwall and functions in the contraction andrelaxation of the heart as it beats.(3)smooth musc le It is located in the walls ofinternal or visceral organs and it functionsin moving substances throughout the body.d.nervous tissueIt is located in the brain andspinal cord, and extends to conglomerate tissues and organs.Itfunctions in transmitting electrical or nerve impulses from the external and internal environments to the brain and spinal cord where it is interpreted and a reaction occurs.4. organ level Organs are groups of two or more types oftissue working together to perform a specific function.5. organ outline level sTstems are groups of organsthat work closely together to perform a common function.There are eleven organ systems in the human bodyaog.h.i.j.k. integumentary systemmuscular systemskeletal systemnervous systemendocrine systemcardiovascular systemlymphatic systemrespiratory systemdigestive systemurinary systemreproductive system6. organismal level It is the highest level of structuralorganization and it consists of groups of organ systems working togethe r to maintain body structure and function. Organ systems work together to maintain an internal environment that is fairly constant, stable, or balanced. This is referred to as homeostasis (to stay the same). Changes do occur, but indoors very narrow ranges or limits.HomeostasisBody parts or structures function efficiently in maintaining metabolic processes and when the survival needs are within trustworthy limits or optimum levels.The survival needs includewater,oxyqen, nutrients, an appropriate bod temperature, and atmospheric crush. Water is necessary for chemical reactions, excretion, and secretion.Oxyqen is required for many of the metabolicreactions that lead down nutrients and provide energy. Nutrients provide energy for cells and cell processes. Bod temperature must be maintained within a certain range for chemical reactions and cell processes to perform efficiently.If the body temperature falls too low or increases too high, chemical reactions will slow down or may stop. Atmospheric pressure is the force of air on the body surface by the weight of air. It is important in breathing and in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs. To maintain homeostasis there are control mechanisms. Control mechanisms consist of three partsi. receptor It responds to sensory stimulifrom theinternal and external environments. The information is sent on afferent pathways to the control center.2. control center It consists of the brain and spinal cord which interpret and analyze the information and determine an appropriate response.Information is then sent along efferentpathways to the effector.3. effector It consists of tissues, organs, or glands that perform a motor response to the original stimulus that was received by the receptor. The response involves a feedback mechanism. If the response slows down or inhibit the stimulus it is a neqative feedback mechanism. If the response speeds up or enhances the stimulus, it is a positive feedback mechanism. Most controlmechanisms for homeostasis in the human body are negative feedback mechanisms.

Fermentation Lab Report Essay Example for Free

Fermentation Lab Report EssayIncreased production of carbon dioxide is a declaration of change magnitude temperatures acceleration of the rate of fermentation.AbstractWe have tested the affects of augmentd temperature above room temperature on the rate of fermentation of yeast. We had 6 flasks filled with 6mL DI water, 2mL barm suspension and 6mL glucose of which 3 were at 25C and 3 were at 37C. The flasks at 37C had each mixture pre-heated at 37C for 2 minutes before being combined and then added to the flask where it was put into the bath heated to 37C. We then checked CO2 levels in each flask every 2 minutes for 20 minutes. We came out results that showed a marginal difference between the amounts of CO2 produced at assorted temperatures. The results showed that increased temperature causes an increase in fermentation rate and increased production of CO2.IntroductionFermentation is the break down of organic matter, by microorganism, in the absence seizure of oxygen also known as anaerobic (Van Neil, 2008). Our reactions occurs when yeasts is added to a solution of glucose and water. Fermentation starts with a process called glycolysis. In glycolysis Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate and a net yield of 2 NADH (electron carrier) and 2 adenosine triphosphate (adenosine triphosphate) molecules. The first step of glycolysis is the energy investment phase. In which 2 ATPs are added to the Glucose molecule, which produces 2 ADPs and Fructose 1, 6-biphosphate. This is followed by the energy pay run into phase. In this phase NAD+ is reduced to NADH and ADP is reduced to ATP. The total number of ATP created is 4 and 2 NAHDH. After the energy payoff phase what is left is 2 pyruvates.Fermentation then takes place only in the absence of oxygen. In fermentation the pyruvate is converted into ethyl alcohol, through the oxidation of the 2 NADH molecules, which returns them to two NAD+s (Freeman, 2011). Oxidation is the loss of an electron in th is case H+. We used information from previous labs in which we tested yeasts ability to break down disaccharides, sugar in that case, at different temperatures and found that 37C was the optimal temperature for yeast to break down sugar, to formulate our hypothesis. Our sources we collected also indicated that different yeasts have different optimal operating temperatures, such as bread makers yeast, which requires higher temperature for yeast to ferment the proteins (Fell, 2008).Since we were using bakers yeast in our experiment we therefore came to the conclusion that increased temperature would increase yeasts ability to ferment glucose. employ this information and our sources we came up with the hypothesis that increasing the temperature of the solution would increase the rate of fermentation. We thought this was a reasonable hypothesis based upon earlier results from our other lab on temperatures affect on the yeasts ability to break down disaccharides. The predictions we cam e up with for the results of our tests were that the flasks at 37C would have a much more quicken rate of CO2 production then that of the 25C Flasks.Materials and MethodsIn the experiment we obtained 9 small beakers and 6 fermentation flasks. In the one beaker we added 18mL of Glucose. In the next we added 6ml of Yeast Suspension followed by another beaker with 18ml of distilled water. We then took those 3 beakers and placed them in the incubating bath set at 37C for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes took the beakers out and added 6mL of distilled water, 2mL of yeast suspension and 6mL of Glucose into 3 furcate beakers and mixed them together.We then immediately added them at the same time to separate fermentation flasks and measured their CO2 levels using a ruler. We then placed them in the incubating bath set for 37C and set out timepiece for 2 minutes. We then prepared 3 beakers using 6mL of distilled water, 2mL yeast suspension and 6mL Glucose solution. Except that this time the yea st, water and glucose was a room temperature (25C). We then proceeded to pour these mixtures into 3 separate fermentation flasks and measured their CO2 levels using a ruler. We then set a timer for 2 minutes. Each time the timer went off we would check the CO2 levels using a ruler. We continued to repeat this checking every 2 minutes for 20 minutes for each set of flasks.ResultsMy results indicated that increased temperature increased the rate of fermentation. In the CO2 Evolution interprets it is clear that as time increased as 2-4 minutes you can see a noticeable increase in the level of CO2 in the fermentation flask. As time increases that difference only increases and increases. Then when you look and the average alcohol fermentation represent it is clear that in total amount of CO2 produced in the flasks fermented in the 37C incubating bath were much quicker in the process of fermentation, so therefore they produced much more CO2 then those at room temperature (25C).Discussio nMy Data supported my hypothesis. Each of my represents data supported this finding. In the graph showing CO2 evolution the data showing 37C had a steep positive slope, while the 25C data showed an more or less unnoticeable positive slope. This shows how over time the fermentation in the flasks at 37C had a noticeable increase in its rate. The other graph shows the overall production of CO2 for each set of flasks. For the flasks at 25C their average CO2 produced was .7mm, while the flasks at 37C produced on average was 9.2mm. This increase rate and total production increase from that at 25C and 37C without a doubt supported my hypothesis. also our minimization of errors landed itself to accurate results. We minimized any error by having the same person measure levels of CO2 and measure out substances such as yeast suspension. This increases my confidence that the results of our experiment not only support my hypothesis, but also supports that our bodies temperature (37C) is the op timal temperature for cell respiration and not room temperature. Another complete experiment that could be used to give more detailed information about what happened is an experiment in which you run the same test, except include a 3rd condition in which the temperature is below room temperature such as 0C. This could show the increase from freezing to room temperature and room temperature to 37C.ReferencesCornelias B Van Niel, Fermentation, in AccessScience, McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008. Web. Freeman, Scott. Biological Science. 4th ed. Boston Benjamin Cummings, 2011. Print. Jack W. Fell, Herman J Phaff, Graeme M. Walker, Yeast, in AccessScience, McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008. Web. Reddy. Effect of Fermentation Condition on Yeast offshoot and Volatile Composition of Wine Produced from Mango Fruit Juice. Food Biproducts Processing Transactions of the Institute of Chemical Engineers Part C 89.4 (2011) 487-91. EBSCO. Web. 2 Oct. 2012. Web.

Design and Planning of 2G, 3G and Channel Modelling of 4G

Design and Planning of 2G, 3G and shift putling of 4GChapter 1 Fundamentals of Cellular CommunicationIn this chapter, all the background k nol raciness which is required for this forge has been discussed.1.1 CellThe scene of action concealmented by exclusive BTS(base transceiver range) is known as kiosk.1.1.1 Shape of stallular teleph wholenessThe regularize of carrellphone looks upon the reportage of the base pose. The actual insurance reportage of the base grade is called footprint and is bring with the help of measurements from the field. We idler make our calculations easier by victimization the shape of go around noting that on that point would not be musculus quadriceps femoriss amid them. As, the purpose is to exit coverage to for each one and every endorser. save if there ar spaces amidst the coverage cranial orbits therefore the person in that specific bea will not be equal to(p) to fixate all coverage.To cover the problem of interleaving spaces, the shapes that hindquarters be employ theoretically beSquargon trilateralHexagonBut in selection criteria one thing must be kept in mind that every person within a cellular telephone get same coverage curiously the person at the edges of the cell. So hexagon is the shape among these leash choices with largest coverage field of force. Its coverage subject empyrean and shape is closest to the circle and it helps tessellate. Omnidirectional antenna is employd in the center of it, and if we want to affair sectored directional antenna then it must be used at any three corners of it.1.1.2 force field of the CellThe bea of a cell with rung R is shown in double 1.1(a), is given by1.2 oftenness provision small-arm developing the cellular system, it has limited capa urban center collect to the given bandwidth. So, in baseball club to solve this problem Cellular bodys micturate to depends on an intelligent and more(prenominal)(prenominal) use of production l ines th crude(a) emerge the region. Every cellular base mail is alloted a group of different communicate conduct to be used in a cell. instauration station in the adjacent cells use comp allowely different frequencies. For this purpose antennas are used such that their ability whitethorn get limited within the cell. In this way the al determined frequencies whitethornbe employd in different cells again. The treat of allocating and selecting lane groups for all the base stations in a system is known as absolute absolute relative frequency use or frequency proviso.We use two types of antennasOmnidirectional antennaSectored directional antennaOmnidirectional antennas are used in the cells which are centrally excited and sectored directional antennas are used in the edge excite cells.To understand the concept of frequency reuse, let us say that S are the total no. of duplex bring obtainable for use, k issuing of conduct given to each cell i.e. kS=kN (1.2)Where N is no . of cells which uses the complete set of available frequencies known as clunkfrequency reuse divisor (1.3)each cell is in the cluster is delegate of the available acquits.The receiving set frequency from 3Hz to 3000GHz are separated into 12 bands, as shown in the table. Frequency spectrum has different annexe characteristics. As far as concerned to the spry communication, we only pay attention to the UHF spectrum.1.2.1 Cluster size(N)If we use N large (a large cluster), the ratio of the cell radius and the aloofness among co-channel decreases, which causes weaker co-channel to-do. But if N is smaller, by keeping the cell size same then we more clusters are needed to cover an airfield. Hence the energy is increased. So if we use N larger then the quality of voice is good further the efficiency is less and vice versa.1.3 hobbleInterference is one of the major factor in the expertness and performance of a cellular profits. The interference is referable to a call in t he neighbouring cell, some otherwise base station operating in the same frequency. Interference causes crosstalk and noise. in that location are two types of interference. adjoining channel interferenceCo-channel interference1.3.1 Adjacent channel interferenceAdjacent channel interference results from the manifestations which are side by side in frequencies to the desires signal. Adjacent channel interference is caused by ill- cartridge clipd filtering, like incomplete filtering of not precious modulation in frequency modulation (FM) systems, not proper tuning, or poor control of frequency. It causes problem.Adjacent channel interference can be trim by careful channel assignment, filtering and force-out control within a cell.1.3.2 Co-channel interferenceCo-channel cells are the cell which use the same set of frequencies. For example, in the figure 1.2 all the letter A are the co-channel cell because they use the same set of frequencies. Interference due to the co-channel cell s is called co-channel interference. It can be reduced by using great value of N(cluster size). If D is the distance amidst the co-channel cells and R is radius of the cell, then by using greater value of N the ratio among D to R is increased hence reducing co-channel interference.The relation can b written as1.4 up(a) coverage and capacityThe number of bring assigned to a cell became insufficiently as the demand of wireless system increases. To provide more channels per coverage, some techniques are introduced which improve the coverage and capacity. These techniques areCell rippingSectoringMicrocell zone concept1.4.1 Cell SplittingCell splitting is the swear out of dividing a cell into smaller cells. In this process we reduce the antenna height and power of the base station. Cell splitting increases the capacity by increasing frequency reuse factor.In cell splittingChannel assignment techniques remain the same.SIR remains the sameTrunking inefficiency do not get suffer.Trunk ing efficiency is the measure of the number of users which can be offered a especial(a) Grade of service with the specific configuration of the channels.The grade of service (GOS) is the measure of the ability to inlet a trunked system during the busy hours.The radius of the new cell is reduce to half. So power is also reduced.1.4.2 SectoringSectoring uses directional antennas for controlling the interferences and frequency reuse of channels. The co-channel interference is reduced and hence increasing system performance by using directional antenna. A cell is normally change integrity into three 120 sectors or six 60sectors.When sectoring is used, the channels used in a geticular cell are broken into sectored groups and are used only within a particular sector. The no. of channels get divided into sectored groups, so the trunking efficiency is reduced. In sectoring SIR is improved by reducing interference and trunking efficiency is reduced. Handoff increased in sectoring. The s /I improvement allows to decrease the cluster size N in order to improve the frequency reuse, and thus the system capacity. Further improvements in s/I is achieved by downtilting the sector antennas.1.4.3 Microcell Zone sentimentMicrocell Zone concept distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundry to hard to reach locations. It maintains the S/I and trunking efficiency, and increases the coverage and capacity of an area.1.5 communicate wave timesRadio waves propagate through different channels and by different ways to reach the MS(wandering lay). It also depends upon the animate of the wave. The propagation of tuner waves depends into two types Brobdingnagian scale propagationSmall scale propagation( melt)1.5.1 Large scale propagationThe model predicts that the average signal potence for all transmitter-receiver (TR) distance on a scale known as large scale propogation model.1.5.2 Small scale propagationThe models that predicts the rapid fluctuation of the real signal military force over a short distance known as small scale propagation model or attenuation.1.5.3 Free property Propagation ModelThe free space propagation model is used when the transmitter and receiver obligate line of sight (LOS) between them to predict the receive signal speciality.WherePr = received power.Pt = transmitted power,Gt and Gr = transmitter and receiver antenna gain,do= T-R separation,L = system expiration factor = wavelength.1.6 Propagation MechanismsThe propagation mechanisms which effect propagation are manifestation dispersalDiffractionReach directly (in case of Line of Sight)If there is line of sight signal reach the Mobile station directly and signal power is very operose.1.6.1 ReflectionReflection occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls upon an object which is large as compare to the wavelength of the wave. It occurs from buildings, walls, come out of earth etc.1.6.2 DiffractionDiffraction happens when the path between the transmitters and receivers is disturbed by a surface with sharp edges. It source is any sharp edge object. Knife edge diffraction Model is used for diffraction.1.6.3 ScatteringScattering occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls upon an object which has small dimension as compared to the wavelength of the wave. Scattering occurs due to small objects, rough surfaces or any irregularities. Objects such as lamp posts, trees scatter the radio waves. Radar Cross Section Model is used for sectoring.1.7 Small Scale FadingFading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength over very short distance. Fading is due to reception of different versions of same signals. Following are the factors which influence Small-Scale Fading areMultipath propagationDue to absence of LOS signal follows the multipath due to reflection, diffraction, scattering.Speed of the peregrineFading also accurs due to the figurehead of the mobile as the signal strength changes.Speed of the ring objectsFading also occurs due to th e movement of mobile, if the speed of the surrounding object is much sudden then the speed of the mobile then it also induces Doppler shift.The transmitting BW (bandwidth) of the signalThe received signal is distorted if the transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the bandwidth of the channel.1.8 GSMThe premier GSM network was launched in 1991. The GSM network was coordinate hierarchically. It consists of one administrative region, which is assigned to MSC. Each administrative region is consists of at least(prenominal) one location area (LA). LA is also called the visited area. An LA consists of some(prenominal) cell groups. Each cell group is assigned to a base station controller (BSC). Cells of one BSC may belong to different LAs. GSM distinguishes explicitly between users and identifiers. The user individuality associates with a MS by mans of personal chip cards, the subscriber identity module (SIM). The SIM is takeout and transferable MSs. The mobile Roaming number is a temporary location-dependent ISDN number. It is assigned by a locally responsible Visited Location compute (VLR).The GSM network can delimit into four major parts.Mobile station (MS).Base station Sub-system (BSS). communicate and switching Sub-system (NSS).Operation and support Sub-system (OSS).1.8.1 Mobile stationA mobile station consists of two parts.Mobile equipment and terminal.Subscriber identity module (SIM).1.8.2 THE entrepotThere are different types of terminal distinguished principally by their power and drillThe fixed terminals are installed in cars.The GSM take-away terminals can be used in the vehicles.The hand held terminals have experienced a biggest success depending upon their weight and volume, which are decreasing continuously. These terminals can emit power of 2 w. The evolution of technologies decreases the maxpower to 0.8 watts.1.8.3 SIMSim is a smart card which identifies the terminal.Using the sim card in the mobile, the user can accession all the s ervices provided by the provider.Terminal does not operate without the sim,.Personal identification number(PIN) helps protect sim.1.9 The Base Station SubsystemThe BSS connects the MS to Network transposition Sub-system. It is incharge of transmittal as well as reception.The BSS is get along divided into two main parts.Base transceiver station (BTS) or base station.Base Station Controller(BSC).1.9.1 The Base Transceiver StationThe BTS deals with the transceivers and antennas which are used in each cell of a network.BTS is usually in the center of cell.Size of the cell is defined by its transmitting power.Each BTS has one to sixteen transceivers which depends upon the density of users.1.10 The Base Station ControllerThe BSC controllers the group of BTS and manages radio resources.The BSC is incharge of handover, frequency hoping and exchange of radio frequency power level of BTSs.1.11 The Network and Switching SubsystemIt is to manage the communication between mobile and other use rs, such as ISDN users, telephony users.It store the entropy in data bases about the subscriber and manage their mobility.1.12 The Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)It is the central component of the NSS.Network Switching Functions are performed by the MSC.It provides connection to more other networks.Chapter 2 PlanningOne of the important word form of the project in which all the detail information is gathered about different areas and their creation including city sharpness, marketplace analysis and roads are the give away features in these details are city profiling. This phase is divided into different tasks.2.1 Lahore City MapFirst is to get the detailed map of the Lahore city, which includes all the aspects related to to the project. These are following- area divisionDense areaSub-urban area broadcast areaBoundaries of City2.2 margin MarkingThe project Radio Frequency Planning is basically the frequency planning of the city, not to its belongings areas. The exact boundary of the city is tag in order to concentrate on the marked area.2.3 PopulationPopulation of the city plays an important role in the frequency planning. It helps a lot in the estimations and assumptions. The commonwealth of the city is around 10 million.2.4 Estimations and AssumptionsThis part is mainly concerned with the frequency planning. When a new telecommunication company comes in the market, it estimates it users. This estimation is done with obedience to the total macrocosm of the particular area. The estimations are done to estimate the users on urban, suburban and open areas.2.5 eye socket sectionThe area division depends upon the percentage of commonwealth in an area and type of area as it is the important factor in the site as wall as frequency planning. The Lahore city is divided into three major areas.2.5.1 urban AreaUrban area is an area which is surrounded by more density of humans and structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it2.5.2 Sub-Urban A reaSuburban area is districts located either inside a town or citys outer premises or just outside its limits.2.5.3 decipherable AreaOpen area is partly settled places away from the large cities. Such areas are different from more intensively settled urban and suburban areas. There are less population as compared to urban and sub-urban areas.2.6 Site Planning2.6.1 Map of Lahore2.6.2 Urban Area2.6.3 Sub-Urban Area2.6.4 Open AreaHATA Model for Urban Area= Path loss in Urban Areas in decibel (dB)= Height of base station in meters (m)= Height of mobile station Antenna in meters (m)= Frequency of transmittal in megahertz (MHz).= Distance between the base station and mobile stations in kilometersTo puzzle out radius of a site of Urban AreaFor Downlink=-75 dBm(this power covers both indoor and outdoor coverage range -70 to -90 dBm )= 35 m(Average height of antenna in city is 30 to 200 m)= 1.5 m= 13 dBm= 46 dBm (Max effect transmitted by Base Station)= Cable loss = 2.01 dBm= 945 Mhz (D ownlink frequency 935 to 960 MHz)= Combine passing game= 5.5 dBmPutting in HATA equationFor Uplink= -102 dbm(Min Power received by Base Station)= 29.1 dBm (Max transmitted power mobile)= 900 MHz (890 to 915 MHz)Putting in HATA equationWe will be using d=0.90 Km as it covers both Uplink and Downlink.For Sub-Urban AreaFor DownlinkFor downlink of Suburban parameters are same as for Urban.For UplinkUplink parameters are also same as Urban AreasWe will be using d=2.32 Km for Suburban Area.For Open AreasDownlinkFor downlink parameters are same as Urban AreasFor UplinkWe will be using d=8 for Open Areas.We will be using 65 degree directional Antennas.Angle between 2 consecutive lobes is 120 degree.r= rundle of lobesFor Full LobeFor All 3 LobesArea of site in UrbanArea of site in SuburbanArea of site in Fields(Open Area)Calculations for Number of BTS2.7 Frequency PlanningOne of the discovery in solving the problem of congestion and user capacity is the cellular concept. Cellular radio sys tems rely on reuse of channels throughout a coverage region. A group of radio channels are allocated to each cellular base station to be used within a area known as cell. Different channels are assingned in the adjacent cells of the base station. The same group of channels can be used by limiting the coverage area, within the boundaries of a cell to cover different levels, within tolerable limits. Frequency planning is the design process of selecting, allocating or assinging channel group stations within a system.The theoretical calculations, and fixed size of a cell is assumed, that can distinguish no of channels in a cell and from that can differentiate cluster size and will differ, the capacity of the cellular system. There is a job between the interference abd capacity in theoretical calculation as if we reduce the cluster size more cells are needed to cover the area and more capacity. But from another perceptive small cluster size causes the ratio between cell radius, and the distance between co-channels cells to increase, leading to stronger co-channels interference.In matter-of-fact calculations, a fixed no of channels are allocated to a cell. One channel per lobe 3channels are allocated to a cell. The capacity can be increased by allocating 2 channels per lobe or 6 channels per cell. But after allocating channels once, they will remain fixed for the whole cellular system and frequency planning.Now as with the fixed no of channels as per cell, the capacity will remain constant of the system and we can achieve weaker co-channel interference, by having a small cluster size(N). A cluster size of 7 is selected in this project, which is also discussed. So in later practical world , there is not a trade-off between capacity and co-channel interference.2.7.1 CalculationsThe city of Lahore is divided into 120 cells. We take 3 channels per cell that gives us1 cell = 3 channelsReuse factor = 1/N = 1/7Which delegacy that frequency can be reused after a cluster of 7 cells. That gives us the total of7 x 3 =21+ 2(guard cells)=23 channelsWe will be using 23 channels with a reuse factor of 1/7.2.8 Implementation in GAIAFigure 2.1 is a snapshot of GAIA planning tool showing us the structure of an urban area. This figure illustrates the urban boundary which we calculate during city profiling. It also shows the antenna system used, in this case 3 sectors with 120 degree azimuth space is used. Antennas are installed on the rooftop of buildings or houses due to vague population and to provide a better coverage.Figure 2.2 shows us the planning of a Sub-Urban area with sites more distance apart as population is less, compared to urban. In Sub-Urban 3 sector cell is used which is similar to the ones used in UrbanFigure 2.3 shows us the coverage planning of a network in an open area. Here the sites are further apart as open area has least population. 3 sector cell is used with the antennas installed supra a steel structure for better coverage.Figure 2.4 shows the sector wise cell area of the sites in the urban area of the city in GAIA, which can be differentiated with the help of different color for each sector, also it shows the coverage area of every site. We have used grid approach in this planning, it is the most dewy-eyedly used and most effective technique used theoretically and practically.Figure 2.5 shows the cell boundary of sites in Sub-urban area of the city.Figure 2.6 shows the cell boundary in the open area of the city.Figure 2.7 illustrates the signal strength in the urban area of the city. Because of the dense population the signal power is strong throughout to ensure high quality calls to the subscribers with minimum interference and call drop.Figure 2.8 shows the 2G signal strength in the Sub-urban areas where population density is low and so the power required is less as compared to urban areas.Figure 2.9 shows the serving signal strength in open area. The signal is the weakest as there is the least number o f people in open area.CHAPTER 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF 3G3.1 INTRODUCTIONThe Universal Mobile Telephony System (UMTS) or 3G as it is known is the bordering big thing in the world of mobile telecommunications. It provides convergence between mobile telephony broadband access and Internet Protocol (IP) backbones.This introduces very shifting data rates on the air interface, as well as the independence of the radio access floor and the service platform. For users this makes available a wide spectrum of circuit-switched or packet data services through the newly developed high bit rate radio technology named Wideband Code contribution Multiple Access (WCDMA). The variable bit rate and variety of traffic on the air interface have presented completely new possibilities for both operators and users, but also new challenges to network planning and optimization.The success of the technology lies in optimum utilization of resources by in effect(p) planning of the network for maximum coverage, ca pacity and quality of service. This part of our project aims to detail method of UMTS Radio Network (UTRAN) Planning.The new technologies and services have brought Brobdingnagian changes within the network planning the planning of a 3G network is now a complex balancing act between all the variables in order to achieve the optimal coverage, capacity and tonicity of Service simultaneously.3.2 WCDMAIn UMTS access scheme is DS-CDMA (Direct Sequence CDMA) which involves that a code sequence is directly used to influence the transmitted radio signal with information which is spreaded over approximately 5 MHz bandwidth and data rate up to 2 Mbps.Every user is assigned a separate code/s depending upon the transaction, thus separation is not based on frequency or time but on the grounding of codes. The major advantage of using WCDMA is that there is no plan for frequency re-use.3.3 node B inspissation B functions as a RBS (Radio Base Station) and provides radio coverage to a geographic al area, by providing physical radio link between the UE (User Equipment) and the network. lymph gland B also refer the codes that are important to tell apart channels in a WCDMA system.It contains the RF transceiver, combiner, network interface and system controller, timing card, channel card and backplane.The Main Functions of Node B are unlikeable loop power controlCDMA fleshly Channel codingModulation /DemodulationMicro DiversityAir interface Transmission /ReceptionError treatmentBoth FDD and TDD modes are supported by Single node B and it can be co-located with a GSM BTS to reduce implementation costs. The conversion of data from the Radio interface is the main task of Node B. It measures strength and quality of the connection. The Node B participates in power control and is also responsible for the FDD woolyer handover.On the terms of coverage, capacity and antenna arrangement Node B can be categorizes as Omni directional and SectorialOTSR (Omni mailter Sector Receiver)ST SR (Sector Transmitter Sector Receiver)3.3.1 OTSR (Omni Transmit Sector Receive)The OTSR configuration uses a single (PA) Power Amplifier, whose output is fed to a transmit splitter. The power of the RF signal is divided by three and fed to the duplexers of the three sectors, which are affiliated to sectorized antennas.3.3.2 STSR (Sectorial Transmit Sector Receive)The STSR configuration uses three (PA) Power Amplifier, whose output is fed directly to the duplexers of the three sectors, which are machine-accessible to sectorized antennas.Node B serve the cells which depend on sectoring.3.4 ACCESS MODES3.4.1 FDD (Frequency Division Duplex)A duplex method whereby uplink and downlink transmissions use two separated radio frequencies. In the FDD, each downlink and uplink uses the different frequency band.3.4.2 TDD (Time Division Duplex)It is a method in which same frequency is used for the transmission of downlink and uplink by using synchronized time intervals. Time slots are divided into transmission and reception part in the physical channel.3.4.3 Frequency Bands3.4 CELLULAR CONCEPTThe UMTS network is third generation of cellular radio network which operate on the principle of dividing the coverage area into zones or cells (node B in this case), each of which has its own set of resources or transceivers (transmitters /receivers) to provide communication channels, which can be accessed by the users of the network.A cell is created by transmitting numerous number of low power transmitters. Cell size is persistent by the different power levels fit in to the subscriber demand and density within a specific region. Cells can be added to accommodate growth.Communication in a cellular network is entire duplex, which is attained by sending and receiving messages on two different frequencies.In order to increase the frequency reuse capability to promote spectrum efficiency of a system, it is desirable to reuse the same channel set in two cells which are close to each other as possible, however this increases the probability of co-channel interference .The performance of cellular mobile radio is affected by co channel interference. Co-channel interference, when not minimized, decreases the ratio of attack aircraft carrier to interference powers (C/I) at the periphery of cells, make diminished system capacity, more frequent handoffs, and dropped calls.Usually cells are represented by a hexagonal cell structure, to demonstrate the concept, however, in practice the shape of cell is determined by the local topography.3.4.1 Types of CellThe 3G network is divided on the basis of size of area covered.Micro cell the area of mediate coverage, e.g., middle of a city.Pico cell the area of smallest coverage, e.g., a hot spot in airport or hotel. big cell the area of largest coverage, e.g., an complete city.3.5 fadingFading is another major constraint in wireless communication. All signals regardless of the medium used, lose strength this is known as attenuation/fading. There are three types of fadingPathlossShadowingRayleigh Fading3.5.1 PathlossPathloss occurs as the power of the signal steadily decreases over distance from the transmitter.3.5.2 ShadowingShadowing or log normal Fading is causes by the presence of building, hills or even tree foilage.3.5.3 Rayleigh FadingRayleigh Fading or multipath fading is a sudden decrease in signal strength as a result of interference between direct and reflected signal reaching the mobile station.3.6 HANDOVER IN CDMAThe term handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring data session or an ongoing call from channel to channel connected to the core network to another. The handover is performed due to the mobility of a user that can be served in another cell more efficiently. Handover is necessary to support mobility of users.Handover are of following types (also known as handoff) tight HandoverSoft HandoverSofter Handover3.6.1Hard.HandoverIn Hard handover the one-time(a) radio links in the UE are dispose of before the new radio links takes place. It can be either seamless or non-seamless. In seamless hard handover, the handover is not detected by the user. A handover that needs a change of the carrier frequency is a hard handover.3.6.2Soft.HandoverSoft handover takes place when cells on the same frequency are changed. Atleast one radio link is always kept to the UTRAN in the removal and addition of the radio links. It is opperated by means of macro diversity in which many radio links are active.3.6.3Softer.handoverIt is one of the important case of soft handover which describe the removal and addition of the radio links which is being belonged by the same Node B. Macro diversity can be performed in the NODE B with maximum ratio corporate trust in softer handover.There are inter-cell and intra-cell handover.Handover 3G 2G (e.g. handover to GSM)FDD inter-frequency hard handoverTDD/FDD handover (change of cell)TDD/TDD handoverFDD/TDD handover (chanDesign a nd Planning of 2G, 3G and Channel Modelling of 4GDesign and Planning of 2G, 3G and Channel Modelling of 4GChapter 1 Fundamentals of Cellular CommunicationIn this chapter, all the background knowledge which is required for this project has been discussed.1.1 CellThe area covered by single BTS(base transceiver station) is known as cell.1.1.1 Shape of cellThe shape of cell depends upon the coverage of the base station. The actual coverage of the base station is called footprint and is found with the help of measurements from the field. We can make our calculations easier by using the shape of circle noting that there would not be spaces between them. As, the purpose is to provide coverage to each and every subscriber. But if there are spaces between the coverage areas then the person in that specific area will not be able to get any coverage.To cover the problem of interleaving spaces, the shapes that can be used theoretically areSquareTriangleHexagonBut in selection criteria one thing must be kept in mind that every person within a cell get same coverage specially the person at the edges of the cell. So hexagon is the shape among these three choices with largest coverage area. Its coverage area and shape is closest to the circle and it helps tessellate. Omnidirectional antenna is used in the center of it, and if we want to use sectored directional antenna then it must be used at any three corners of it.1.1.2 Area of the CellThe area of a cell with radius R is shown in figure 1.1(a), is given by1.2 Frequency planningWhile developing the cellular system, it has limited capacity due to the given bandwidth. So, in order to solve this problem Cellular Systems have to depends on an intelligent and more use of channels through out the area. Every cellular base station is alloted a group of different radio channels to be used in a cell. Base station in the adjacent cells use completely different frequencies. For this purpose antennas are used such that their power may g et limited within the cell. In this way the allocated frequencies maybe reused in different cells again. The process of allocating and selecting channel groups for all the base stations in a system is known as frequency reuse or frequency planning.We use two types of antennasOmnidirectional antennaSectored directional antennaOmnidirectional antennas are used in the cells which are centrally excited and sectored directional antennas are used in the edge excite cells.To understand the concept of frequency reuse, let us say that S are the total no. of duplex channels available for use, k number of channels given to each cell i.e. kS=kN (1.2)Where N is no. of cells which uses the complete set of available frequencies known as clusterfrequency reuse factor (1.3)Each cell is in the cluster is assigned of the available channels.The radio frequency from 3Hz to 3000GHz are separated into 12 bands, as shown in the table. Frequency spectrum has different propagation characteristics. As far as concerned to the mobile communication, we only pay attention to the UHF spectrum.1.2.1 Cluster size(N)If we use N large (a large cluster), the ratio of the cell radius and the distance between co-channel decreases, which causes weaker co-channel interference. But if N is smaller, by keeping the cell size same then we more clusters are needed to cover an area. Hence the capacity is increased. So if we use N larger then the quality of voice is good but the capacity is less and vice versa.1.3 InterferenceInterference is one of the major factor in the capacity and performance of a cellular network. The interference is due to a call in the neighbouring cell, another base station operating in the same frequency. Interference causes crosstalk and noise. There are two types of interference.Adjacent channel interferenceCo-channel interference1.3.1 Adjacent channel interferenceAdjacent channel interference results from the signals which are side by side in frequencies to the desires signal. A djacent channel interference is caused by wrong filtering, like incomplete filtering of not wanted modulation in frequency modulation (FM) systems, not proper tuning, or poor control of frequency. It causes problem.Adjacent channel interference can be reduced by careful channel assignment, filtering and power control within a cell.1.3.2 Co-channel interferenceCo-channel cells are the cell which use the same set of frequencies. For example, in the figure 1.2 all the letter A are the co-channel cell because they use the same set of frequencies. Interference due to the co-channel cells is called co-channel interference. It can be reduced by using greater value of N(cluster size). If D is the distance between the co-channel cells and R is radius of the cell, then by using greater value of N the ratio between D to R is increased hence reducing co-channel interference.The relation can b written as1.4 Improving coverage and capacityThe number of channels assigned to a cell became insuffici ently as the demand of wireless system increases. To provide more channels per coverage, some techniques are introduced which improve the coverage and capacity. These techniques areCell splittingSectoringMicrocell zone concept1.4.1 Cell SplittingCell splitting is the process of dividing a cell into smaller cells. In this process we reduce the antenna height and power of the base station. Cell splitting increases the capacity by increasing frequency reuse factor.In cell splittingChannel assignment techniques remain the same.SIR remains the sameTrunking inefficiency do not get suffer.Trunking efficiency is the measure of the number of users which can be offered a particular Grade of service with the specific configuration of the channels.The grade of service (GOS) is the measure of the ability to access a trunked system during the busy hours.The radius of the new cell is reduce to half. So power is also reduced.1.4.2 SectoringSectoring uses directional antennas for controlling the int erferences and frequency reuse of channels. The co-channel interference is reduced and thus increasing system performance by using directional antenna. A cell is normally divided into three 120 sectors or six 60sectors.When sectoring is used, the channels used in a particular cell are broken into sectored groups and are used only within a particular sector. The no. of channels get divided into sectored groups, so the trunking efficiency is reduced. In sectoring SIR is improved by reducing interference and trunking efficiency is reduced. Handoff increased in sectoring. The s/I improvement allows to decrease the cluster size N in order to improve the frequency reuse, and thus the system capacity. Further improvements in s/I is achieved by downtilting the sector antennas.1.4.3 Microcell Zone ConceptMicrocell Zone concept distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundry to hard to reach places. It maintains the S/I and trunking efficiency, and increases the coverage and c apacity of an area.1.5 Radio wave propagationRadio waves propagate through different channels and by different ways to reach the MS(Mobile Station). It also depends upon the speed of the wave. The propagation of radio waves depends into two typesLarge scale propagationSmall scale propagation(Fading)1.5.1 Large scale propagationThe model predicts that the average signal strength for all transmitter-receiver (TR) distance on a scale known as large scale propogation model.1.5.2 Small scale propagationThe models that predicts the rapid fluctuation of the received signal strength over a short distance known as small scale propagation model or fading.1.5.3 Free Space Propagation ModelThe free space propagation model is used when the transmitter and receiver have line of sight (LOS) between them to predict the received signal strength.WherePr = received power.Pt = transmitted power,Gt and Gr = transmitter and receiver antenna gain,do= T-R separation,L = system loss factor = wavelength.1.6 Propagation MechanismsThe propagation mechanisms which effect propagation areReflectionScatteringDiffractionReach directly (in case of Line of Sight)If there is line of sight signal reach the Mobile station directly and signal power is very strong.1.6.1 ReflectionReflection occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls upon an object which is large as compare to the wavelength of the wave. It occurs from buildings, walls, surface of earth etc.1.6.2 DiffractionDiffraction happens when the path between the transmitters and receivers is disturbed by a surface with sharp edges. It source is any sharp edge object. Knife edge diffraction Model is used for diffraction.1.6.3 ScatteringScattering occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls upon an object which has small dimension as compared to the wavelength of the wave. Scattering occurs due to small objects, rough surfaces or any irregularities. Objects such as lamp posts, trees scatter the radio waves. Radar Cross Section Model is used for sec toring.1.7 Small Scale FadingFading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength over very short distance. Fading is due to reception of different versions of same signals. Following are the factors which influence Small-Scale Fading areMultipath propagationDue to absence of LOS signal follows the multipath due to reflection, diffraction, scattering.Speed of the mobileFading also accurs due to the movement of the mobile as the signal strength changes.Speed of the surrounding objectsFading also occurs due to the movement of mobile, if the speed of the surrounding object is much faster then the speed of the mobile then it also induces Doppler shift.The transmission BW (bandwidth) of the signalThe received signal is distorted if the transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the bandwidth of the channel.1.8 GSMThe first GSM network was launched in 1991. The GSM network was structured hierarchically. It consists of one administrative region, which is assigned to MSC. Each admini strative region is consists of at least one location area (LA). LA is also called the visited area. An LA consists of several cell groups. Each cell group is assigned to a base station controller (BSC). Cells of one BSC may belong to different LAs. GSM distinguishes explicitly between users and identifiers. The user identity associates with a MS by mans of personal chip cards, the subscriber identity module (SIM). The SIM is portable and transferable MSs. The mobile Roaming number is a temporary location-dependent ISDN number. It is assigned by a locally responsible Visited Location Number (VLR).The GSM network can defined into four major parts.Mobile station (MS).Base station Sub-system (BSS).Network and switching Sub-system (NSS).Operation and support Sub-system (OSS).1.8.1 Mobile stationA mobile station consists of two parts.Mobile equipment and terminal.Subscriber identity module (SIM).1.8.2 THE TerminalThere are different types of terminal distinguished principally by their pow er and applicationThe fixed terminals are installed in cars.The GSM portable terminals can be used in the vehicles.The hand held terminals have experienced a biggest success depending upon their weight and volume, which are decreasing continuously. These terminals can emit power of 2 w. The evolution of technologies decreases the maxpower to 0.8 watts.1.8.3 SIMSim is a smart card which identifies the terminal.Using the sim card in the mobile, the user can access all the services provided by the provider.Terminal does not operate without the sim,.Personal identification number(PIN) helps protect sim.1.9 The Base Station SubsystemThe BSS connects the MS to Network Switching Sub-system. It is incharge of transmission as well as reception.The BSS is further divided into two main parts.Base transceiver station (BTS) or base station.Base Station Controller(BSC).1.9.1 The Base Transceiver StationThe BTS deals with the transceivers and antennas which are used in each cell of a network.BTS i s usually in the center of cell.Size of the cell is defined by its transmitting power.Each BTS has one to sixteen transceivers which depends upon the density of users.1.10 The Base Station ControllerThe BSC controllers the group of BTS and manages radio resources.The BSC is incharge of handover, frequency hoping and exchange of radio frequency power level of BTSs.1.11 The Network and Switching SubsystemIt is to manage the communication between mobile and other users, such as ISDN users, telephony users.It store the information in data bases about the subscriber and manage their mobility.1.12 The Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)It is the central component of the NSS.Network Switching Functions are performed by the MSC.It provides connection to more other networks.Chapter 2 PlanningOne of the important phase of the project in which all the detail information is gathered about different areas and their population including city boundary, market analysis and roads are the key feat ures in these details are city profiling. This phase is divided into different tasks.2.1 Lahore City MapFirst is to get the detailed map of the Lahore city, which includes all the aspects related to the project. These are following-Area divisionDense areaSub-urban areaopen areaBoundaries of City2.2 Boundary MarkingThe project Radio Frequency Planning is basically the frequency planning of the city, not to its belongings areas. The exact boundary of the city is marked in order to concentrate on the marked area.2.3 PopulationPopulation of the city plays an important role in the frequency planning. It helps a lot in the estimations and assumptions. The population of the city is around 10 million.2.4 Estimations and AssumptionsThis part is mainly concerned with the frequency planning. When a new telecommunication company comes in the market, it estimates it users. This estimation is done with respect to the total population of the particular area. The estimations are done to estimate t he users on urban, suburban and open areas.2.5 Area DivisionThe area division depends upon the percentage of population in an area and type of area as it is the important factor in the site as wall as frequency planning. The Lahore city is divided into three major areas.2.5.1 Urban AreaUrban area is an area which is surrounded by more density of humans and structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it2.5.2 Sub-Urban AreaSuburban area is districts located either inside a town or citys outer premises or just outside its limits.2.5.3 Open AreaOpen area is partially settled places away from the large cities. Such areas are different from more intensively settled urban and suburban areas. There are less population as compared to urban and sub-urban areas.2.6 Site Planning2.6.1 Map of Lahore2.6.2 Urban Area2.6.3 Sub-Urban Area2.6.4 Open AreaHATA Model for Urban Area= Path loss in Urban Areas in decibel (dB)= Height of base station in meters (m)= Height of mobile station Antenna in meters (m)= Frequency of Transmission in megahertz (MHz).= Distance between the base station and mobile stations in kilometersTo calculate radius of a site of Urban AreaFor Downlink=-75 dBm(this power covers both indoor and outdoor coverage range -70 to -90 dBm )= 35 m(Average height of antenna in city is 30 to 200 m)= 1.5 m= 13 dBm= 46 dBm (Max Power transmitted by Base Station)= Cable loss = 2.01 dBm= 945 Mhz (Downlink frequency 935 to 960 MHz)= Combine Loss= 5.5 dBmPutting in HATA equationFor Uplink= -102 dbm(Min Power received by Base Station)= 29.1 dBm (Max transmitted power mobile)= 900 MHz (890 to 915 MHz)Putting in HATA equationWe will be using d=0.90 Km as it covers both Uplink and Downlink.For Sub-Urban AreaFor DownlinkFor downlink of Suburban parameters are same as for Urban.For UplinkUplink parameters are also same as Urban AreasWe will be using d=2.32 Km for Suburban Area.For Open AreasDownlinkFor downlink parameters are same as Urban AreasFor UplinkWe will be using d=8 for Open Areas.We will be using 65 degree directional Antennas.Angle between 2 consecutive lobes is 120 degree.r=Radius of lobesFor Full LobeFor All 3 LobesArea of site in UrbanArea of site in SuburbanArea of site in Fields(Open Area)Calculations for Number of BTS2.7 Frequency PlanningOne of the breakthrough in solving the problem of congestion and user capacity is the cellular concept. Cellular radio systems rely on reuse of channels throughout a coverage region. A group of radio channels are allocated to each cellular base station to be used within a area known as cell. Different channels are assingned in the adjacent cells of the base station. The same group of channels can be used by limiting the coverage area, within the boundaries of a cell to cover different levels, within tolerable limits. Frequency planning is the design process of selecting, allocating or assinging channel group stations within a system.The theoretical calculations, and fixed size of a cell is assumed, th at can differentiate no of channels in a cell and from that can differentiate cluster size and will differ, the capacity of the cellular system. There is a trade between the interference abd capacity in theoretical calculation as if we reduce the cluster size more cells are needed to cover the area and more capacity. But from another perceptive small cluster size causes the ratio between cell radius, and the distance between co-channels cells to increase, leading to stronger co-channels interference.In practical calculations, a fixed no of channels are allocated to a cell. One channel per lobe 3channels are allocated to a cell. The capacity can be increased by allocating 2 channels per lobe or 6 channels per cell. But after allocating channels once, they will remain fixed for the whole cellular system and frequency planning.Now as with the fixed no of channels as per cell, the capacity will remain constant of the system and we can achieve weaker co-channel interference, by having a small cluster size(N). A cluster size of 7 is selected in this project, which is also discussed. So in later practical world , there is not a trade-off between capacity and co-channel interference.2.7.1 CalculationsThe city of Lahore is divided into 120 cells. We take 3 channels per cell that gives us1 cell = 3 channelsReuse factor = 1/N = 1/7Which means that frequency can be reused after a cluster of 7 cells. That gives us the total of7 x 3 =21+ 2(guard cells)=23 channelsWe will be using 23 channels with a reuse factor of 1/7.2.8 Implementation in GAIAFigure 2.1 is a snapshot of GAIA planning tool showing us the structure of an urban area. This figure illustrates the urban boundary which we calculate during city profiling. It also shows the antenna system used, in this case 3 sectors with 120 degree azimuth spacing is used. Antennas are installed on the rooftop of buildings or houses due to dense population and to provide a better coverage.Figure 2.2 shows us the planning of a Sub- Urban area with sites more distance apart as population is less, compared to urban. In Sub-Urban 3 sector cell is used which is similar to the ones used in UrbanFigure 2.3 shows us the coverage planning of a network in an open area. Here the sites are further apart as open area has least population. 3 sector cell is used with the antennas installed above a steel structure for better coverage.Figure 2.4 shows the sector wise cell area of the sites in the urban area of the city in GAIA, which can be differentiated with the help of different color for each sector, also it shows the coverage area of every site. We have used grid approach in this planning, it is the most widely used and most effective technique used theoretically and practically.Figure 2.5 shows the cell boundary of sites in Sub-urban area of the city.Figure 2.6 shows the cell boundary in the open area of the city.Figure 2.7 illustrates the signal strength in the urban area of the city. Because of the dense population th e signal power is strong throughout to ensure high quality calls to the subscribers with minimum interference and call drop.Figure 2.8 shows the 2G signal strength in the Sub-urban areas where population density is low and so the power required is less as compared to urban areas.Figure 2.9 shows the serving signal strength in open area. The signal is the weakest as there is the least number of people in open area.CHAPTER 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF 3G3.1 INTRODUCTIONThe Universal Mobile Telephony System (UMTS) or 3G as it is known is the next big thing in the world of mobile telecommunications. It provides convergence between mobile telephony broadband access and Internet Protocol (IP) backbones.This introduces very variable data rates on the air interface, as well as the independence of the radio access infrastructure and the service platform. For users this makes available a wide spectrum of circuit-switched or packet data services through the newly developed high bit rate radio technology named Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA). The variable bit rate and variety of traffic on the air interface have presented completely new possibilities for both operators and users, but also new challenges to network planning and optimization.The success of the technology lies in optimum utilization of resources by efficient planning of the network for maximum coverage, capacity and quality of service. This part of our project aims to detail method of UMTS Radio Network (UTRAN) Planning.The new technologies and services have brought vast changes within the network planning the planning of a 3G network is now a complex balancing act between all the variables in order to achieve the optimal coverage, capacity and Quality of Service simultaneously.3.2 WCDMAIn UMTS access scheme is DS-CDMA (Direct Sequence CDMA) which involves that a code sequence is directly used to modulate the transmitted radio signal with information which is spreaded over approximately 5 MHz bandwidth a nd data rate up to 2 Mbps.Every user is assigned a separate code/s depending upon the transaction, thus separation is not based on frequency or time but on the basis of codes. The major advantage of using WCDMA is that there is no plan for frequency re-use.3.3 NODE BNode B functions as a RBS (Radio Base Station) and provides radio coverage to a geographical area, by providing physical radio link between the UE (User Equipment) and the network. Node B also refer the codes that are important to identify channels in a WCDMA system.It contains the RF transceiver, combiner, network interface and system controller, timing card, channel card and backplane.The Main Functions of Node B areClosed loop power controlCDMA Physical Channel codingModulation /DemodulationMicro DiversityAir interface Transmission /ReceptionError handlingBoth FDD and TDD modes are supported by Single node B and it can be co-located with a GSM BTS to reduce implementation costs. The conversion of data from the Radio i nterface is the main task of Node B. It measures strength and quality of the connection. The Node B participates in power control and is also responsible for the FDD softer handover.On the basis of coverage, capacity and antenna arrangement Node B can be categorizes as Omni directional and SectorialOTSR (Omni Transmitter Sector Receiver)STSR (Sector Transmitter Sector Receiver)3.3.1 OTSR (Omni Transmit Sector Receive)The OTSR configuration uses a single (PA) Power Amplifier, whose output is fed to a transmit splitter. The power of the RF signal is divided by three and fed to the duplexers of the three sectors, which are connected to sectorized antennas.3.3.2 STSR (Sectorial Transmit Sector Receive)The STSR configuration uses three (PA) Power Amplifier, whose output is fed directly to the duplexers of the three sectors, which are connected to sectorized antennas.Node B serve the cells which depend on sectoring.3.4 ACCESS MODES3.4.1 FDD (Frequency Division Duplex)A duplex method where by uplink and downlink transmissions use two separated radio frequencies. In the FDD, each downlink and uplink uses the different frequency band.3.4.2 TDD (Time Division Duplex)It is a method in which same frequency is used for the transmission of downlink and uplink by using synchronized time intervals. Time slots are divided into transmission and reception part in the physical channel.3.4.3 Frequency Bands3.4 CELLULAR CONCEPTThe UMTS network is third generation of cellular radio network which operate on the principle of dividing the coverage area into zones or cells (node B in this case), each of which has its own set of resources or transceivers (transmitters /receivers) to provide communication channels, which can be accessed by the users of the network.A cell is created by transmitting numerous number of low power transmitters. Cell size is determined by the different power levels according to the subscriber demand and density within a specific region. Cells can be added to acc ommodate growth.Communication in a cellular network is full duplex, which is attained by sending and receiving messages on two different frequencies.In order to increase the frequency reuse capability to promote spectrum efficiency of a system, it is desirable to reuse the same channel set in two cells which are close to each other as possible, however this increases the probability of co-channel interference .The performance of cellular mobile radio is affected by co channel interference. Co-channel interference, when not minimized, decreases the ratio of carrier to interference powers (C/I) at the periphery of cells, causing diminished system capacity, more frequent handoffs, and dropped calls.Usually cells are represented by a hexagonal cell structure, to demonstrate the concept, however, in practice the shape of cell is determined by the local topography.3.4.1 Types of CellThe 3G network is divided on the basis of size of area covered.Micro cell the area of intermediate coverag e, e.g., middle of a city.Pico cell the area of smallest coverage, e.g., a hot spot in airport or hotel.Macro cell the area of largest coverage, e.g., an complete city.3.5 FADINGFading is another major constraint in wireless communication. All signals regardless of the medium used, lose strength this is known as attenuation/fading. There are three types of fadingPathlossShadowingRayleigh Fading3.5.1 PathlossPathloss occurs as the power of the signal steadily decreases over distance from the transmitter.3.5.2 ShadowingShadowing or Log normal Fading is causes by the presence of building, hills or even tree foilage.3.5.3 Rayleigh FadingRayleigh Fading or multipath fading is a sudden decrease in signal strength as a result of interference between direct and reflected signal reaching the mobile station.3.6 HANDOVER IN CDMAThe term handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring data session or an ongoing call from channel to channel connected to the core network to another. T he handover is performed due to the mobility of a user that can be served in another cell more efficiently. Handover is necessary to support mobility of users.Handover are of following types (also known as handoff)Hard HandoverSoft HandoverSofter Handover3.6.1Hard.HandoverIn Hard handover the old radio links in the UE are dispose of before the new radio links takes place. It can be either seamless or non-seamless. In seamless hard handover, the handover is not detected by the user. A handover that needs a change of the carrier frequency is a hard handover.3.6.2Soft.HandoverSoft handover takes place when cells on the same frequency are changed. Atleast one radio link is always kept to the UTRAN in the removal and addition of the radio links. It is opperated by means of macro diversity in which many radio links are active.3.6.3Softer.handoverIt is one of the important case of soft handover which describe the removal and addition of the radio links which is being belonged by the same N ode B. Macro diversity can be performed in the NODE B with maximum ratio combining in softer handover.There are inter-cell and intra-cell handover.Handover 3G 2G (e.g. handover to GSM)FDD inter-frequency hard handoverTDD/FDD handover (change of cell)TDD/TDD handoverFDD/TDD handover (chan